<?xml version='1.0' encoding='UTF-8'?><?xml-stylesheet href="http://www.blogger.com/styles/atom.css" type="text/css"?><feed xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2005/Atom' xmlns:openSearch='http://a9.com/-/spec/opensearchrss/1.0/' xmlns:georss='http://www.georss.org/georss' xmlns:gd='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005' xmlns:thr='http://purl.org/syndication/thread/1.0'><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746</id><updated>2011-11-28T07:51:17.810+07:00</updated><category term='Newstainment'/><category term='iTech'/><category term='Dental'/><category term='Law'/><title type='text'>dhanajournal</title><subtitle type='html'>Googling for fun and search what you want!</subtitle><link rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#feed' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/posts/default'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default?max-results=100'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/'/><link rel='hub' href='http://pubsubhubbub.appspot.com/'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><generator version='7.00' uri='http://www.blogger.com'>Blogger</generator><openSearch:totalResults>65</openSearch:totalResults><openSearch:startIndex>1</openSearch:startIndex><openSearch:itemsPerPage>100</openSearch:itemsPerPage><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-8341072272892100828</id><published>2010-07-26T20:25:00.004+07:00</published><updated>2010-07-26T20:42:47.607+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Newstainment'/><title type='text'>Elpiji akan ditambah Ethyl Mercaptan</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt;  &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;amp;up_source_language=id&amp;amp;w=157&amp;amp;h=60&amp;amp;title=&amp;amp;border=&amp;amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Ethyl mercaptan, merupakan zat pembau yang tajam, yang nantinya akan ditambahkan kedalam tabung gas elpiji 3 kg, yang akhir-akhir ini sering bocor dan menimbulkan ledakan. Pertamina mendapatkan instruksi tersebut pada waktu rapat koordinasi teknis (rakornis) di kementerian koordinator kesejahteraan rakyat (Kemenkokesra), dimana pertemuan itu khusus untuk membahas permasalahan tabung elpiji 3 kg dan perlengkapannya. Karena memang selama ini Pertamina menjadi penanggung jawab program pengalihan (konversi) pemakaian minyak tanah ke elpiji. &lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Dirjen Industri logam, mesin, tekstil, dan aneka pada kementerian perindustrian, Ansari Bukhari, di jakarta, Rabu minggu lalu (21/7) mengatakan bahwa hasil rapat koordinasi beberapa kali, Pertamina sudah memasukkan program meningkatkan kadar zat pembau pada gas elpiji.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Zat pembau yang ditambahkan ke gas elpiji itu (Ethyl Mercaptan) secara awam baunya mirip dengan bau buah durian, tapi juga mirip telur busuk, karena sesungguhnya senyawa ini merupakan senyawa belerang. Taufik Mahlan, konsultan independen terminal BBM dan elpiji mengatakan, apabila tercium bau busuk atau durian dari dapur sedangkan kita tidak memiliki telur atau durian, maka antisipasi yang harus dilakukan adalah jangan menyalakan api atau listrik disekitar dapur. Segeralah buka jendela, pintu, kemudian keluarkan tabung gas ke halaman atau tempat terbuka sampai baunya hilang.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Mantan Wapres Jusuf Kalla, sebelumnya sudah mengimbau Pertamina agar memperhatikan bau gas elpiji karena sering terjadi ledakan akibat bocornya tabung gas. Beliau yang merupakan pencetus konversi mitan ke gas elpiji mengatakan bahwa dengan bau gas elpiji yang lebih menyengat hidung, maka tatkala terjadi kebocoran, pengguna bisa lebih mudah mengendus baunya. Dengan begitu pengguna elpiji bisa mengantisipasi lebih awal terjadinya ledakan (ledakan bisa dihindari).&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Berdasarkan hasil penyelidikan Kemenkokesra, Pemerintah memastikan bahwa penyebab kecelakaan penggunaan gas elpiji 3 kg adalah, selang bocor, katup tabung rusak, serta regulator yang tidak berfungsi. Kemenkokesra juga memaparkan belum diketahui dan dijumpai kecelakaan akibat bocornya tabung gas 3kg.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Beberapa bulan terakhir seringkali kita dengar ada berita ledakan elpiji baik yang 3 kg atau yang 12 kg. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Sales representative Pertamina Rayon III, Hanggowo Wicaksono, mengatakan bahwa banyaknya kecelakaan akibat ledakan elpiji atau kebocoran gas karena ruangan dapur warga tidak memiliki ventilasi (lubang angin) dan ruangan dapur yang tertutup rapat. Ia juga menambahkan bahwa berat jenis gas elpiji lebih besar dibandingkan dengan udara, apabila ada ventilasi di bawah maka gas itu cepat menghilang bersama udara dan tidak akan menimbulkan ledakan.Pertamina akan memberikan santunankepada korban ledakan elpiji 3kg sesuai dengan ketentuan yang ditetapkan oleh Pertamina, diantaranya harus menunjukkan kartu penerima bantuan konversi.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Bapak Hanggowo juga menjelaskan bahwa biasanya ibu rumah tangga memasak pada pagi hari tanpa membuka pintu dapur, ketika terjadi kebocoran gas, api mudah tersulut dan menimbulkan ledakan apabila ruangan itu tertutup rapat. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Hanggowo juga mengimbau agar ibu rumah tangga yang menggunakan kompor gas harus membuka pintu dan jendela dulu sela 15-20 menit, sehingga terjadi sirkulasi udara dan mengurangi terjadinya ledakan apabila terjadi kebocoran gas. - &lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Surya ; kompasiana (dot) com&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/"&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-8341072272892100828?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/8341072272892100828/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2010/07/elpiji-akan-ditambah-ethyl-mercaptan.html#comment-form' title='4 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/8341072272892100828'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/8341072272892100828'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2010/07/elpiji-akan-ditambah-ethyl-mercaptan.html' title='Elpiji akan ditambah Ethyl Mercaptan'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>4</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-8717147639571926379</id><published>2010-07-25T12:45:00.005+07:00</published><updated>2010-07-25T13:48:25.248+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='iTech'/><title type='text'>Apa itu alexa rank dan cara manaikkan alexa rank</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt;  &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;amp;up_source_language=id&amp;amp;w=157&amp;amp;h=60&amp;amp;title=&amp;amp;border=&amp;amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Sebelum saya menjelaskan tentang cara meningkatkan rank alexa, ada baiknya anda mengetahui sekilas tentang apa itu alexa rank.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a href="http://alexa.com/"&gt;Alexa rank&lt;/a&gt;adalah suatu situs yang memberikan ranking dari besar ke kecil pada semua situs berdasarkan tingkat pengunjung atau visitors dan popularitas situs tersebut. Anda bisa langsung cek ke alexa(dot)com&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt; manfaatnya banyak sekali kalau ranking blog anda sudah bagus.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Ada banyak cara untuk meningkatkan alexa rank, diantaranya adalah sebagai berikut,&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Pasang widget alexa&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="font-style: italic;"&gt;,&lt;/span&gt; &lt;br /&gt;hal ini selain menaikkan alexa rank juga bisa menaikkan page rank.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Update secara teratur blog anda,&lt;/span&gt; &lt;br /&gt;karena mesin pencari lebih senang pada blog memiliki konten baru, dan kurang suka pada blog yang mati (tidak ada pembaruan entri pada blog tersebut).&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Buat subdomain untuk meningkatkan traffik, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;tapi sayangnya untuk yang satu ini gag bisa untuk blog gratis seperti punya saya ini &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/"&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Komentar di blog lain,&lt;/span&gt; &lt;br /&gt;yang satu ini bisa untuk meningkatkan backlink pada blog anda, tapi harus perhatikan yang kita komen itu blog bagus atau nggak. hehe.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Pakai keyword yang sering dicari,&lt;br /&gt;agar blog anda mudah ditemukan oleh mesin pencari maka anda harus belajar mengenai SEO.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Cara diatas mungkin bisa membantu anda yang ingin menaikkan alexa rank blog anda, akan tetapi cara yang paling jitu dalam menaikkan alexa rank atau page rank blog anda adalah dengan memperbanyak konten di blog anda, bagaimanapun juga yang dicari oleh sobat netter adalah konten, dan sobat netter adalah Raja.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Tapi ingat konten yang dimuat asal jangan konten porno yaa... semoga bermanfaat.&lt;br /&gt;selamat mencoba...&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/"&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-8717147639571926379?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/8717147639571926379/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2010/07/apa-itu-alexa-rank-dan-cara-manaikkan.html#comment-form' title='1 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/8717147639571926379'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/8717147639571926379'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2010/07/apa-itu-alexa-rank-dan-cara-manaikkan.html' title='Apa itu alexa rank dan cara manaikkan alexa rank'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>1</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-6686485447328991420</id><published>2010-01-25T14:37:00.001+07:00</published><updated>2010-01-25T14:39:49.731+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Law'/><title type='text'>Permufakatan Jahat Tindak Pidana Psikotropika</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=id&amp;w=157&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt;  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;ABSTRAK&lt;br /&gt;Tindak pidana di bidang psikotropika sebagaimana diatur dalam pasal 59 sampai 72 Undang-undang No. 5 Tahun 1997 tentang Psikotropika merupakan kejahatan. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Ketentuan pidana mengenai permufakatan jahat diatur dalam pasal 71 Undang-undang No. 5 Tahun 1997, ketentuan permufakatan jahat ini tidak berlaku untuk semua tindak pidana psikotropika, melainkan hanya berlaku terhadap pasal 60, pasal 61, pasal 62, atau pasal 63 Undang-undang No. 5 Tahun 1997.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Permufakatan jahat yang dimaksud dalam pasal 71 Undang-undang No. 5 Tahun 1997 tentang Psikotropika adalah permufakatan jahat sebagai delik yang berdiri sendiri dengan pemberatan ancaman pidana pokok ditambah ⅓ (sepertiga) kecuali untuk pidana mati/ seumur hidup/ atau pidana penjara 20 (duapuluh) tahun, maka apabila terjadi tindak pidana psikotropika yang pelakunya lebih dari satu orang, kurang tepat kiranya apabila dijunctokan dengan pasal 71 Undang-undang No. 5 Tahun 1997, karena maksud dari pasal 71 sendiri adalah permufakatan jahat sebagai delik yang berdiri sendiri, bukan permufakatan jahat yang diikuti dengan tindak pidana. Sehingga apabila terjadi yang demikian, maka seharusnya dipakai pasal 55 KUHP karena tidak diatur khusus dalam Undang-undang No. 5 Tahun 1997.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com'&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-6686485447328991420?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/6686485447328991420/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2010/01/permufakatan-jahat-tindak-pidana.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/6686485447328991420'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/6686485447328991420'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2010/01/permufakatan-jahat-tindak-pidana.html' title='Permufakatan Jahat Tindak Pidana Psikotropika'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-3881662610477014352</id><published>2009-08-31T17:50:00.000+07:00</published><updated>2009-08-31T17:52:43.264+07:00</updated><title type='text'>Heal The world</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt;&lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=en&amp;w=160&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Theres a place in&lt;br /&gt;Your heart&lt;br /&gt;And I know that it is love&lt;br /&gt;And this place could&lt;br /&gt;Be much&lt;br /&gt;Brighter than tomorrow&lt;br /&gt;And if you really try&lt;br /&gt;Youll find theres no need&lt;br /&gt;To cry&lt;br /&gt;In this place youll feel&lt;br /&gt;Theres no hurt or sorrow&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;There are ways&lt;br /&gt;To get there&lt;br /&gt;If you care enough&lt;br /&gt;For the living&lt;br /&gt;Make a little space&lt;br /&gt;Make a better place...&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Heal the world&lt;br /&gt;Make it a better place&lt;br /&gt;For you and for me&lt;br /&gt;And the entire human race&lt;br /&gt;There are people dying&lt;br /&gt;If you care enough&lt;br /&gt;For the living&lt;br /&gt;Make a better place&lt;br /&gt;For you and for me&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;If you want to know why&lt;br /&gt;Theres a love that&lt;br /&gt;Cannot lie&lt;br /&gt;Love is strong&lt;br /&gt;It only cares for&lt;br /&gt;Joyful giving&lt;br /&gt;If we try&lt;br /&gt;We shall see&lt;br /&gt;In this bliss&lt;br /&gt;We cannot feel&lt;br /&gt;Fear or dread&lt;br /&gt;We stop existing and&lt;br /&gt;Start living&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Then it feels that always&lt;br /&gt;Loves enough for&lt;br /&gt;Us growing&lt;br /&gt;So make a better world&lt;br /&gt;Make a better world...&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Heal the world&lt;br /&gt;Make it a better place&lt;br /&gt;For you and for me&lt;br /&gt;And the entire human race&lt;br /&gt;There are people dying&lt;br /&gt;If you care enough&lt;br /&gt;For the living&lt;br /&gt;Make a better place&lt;br /&gt;For you and for me&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;And the dream we were&lt;br /&gt;Conceived in&lt;br /&gt;Will reveal a joyful face&lt;br /&gt;And the world we&lt;br /&gt;Once believed in&lt;br /&gt;Will shine again in grace&lt;br /&gt;Then why do we keep&lt;br /&gt;Strangling life&lt;br /&gt;Wound this earth&lt;br /&gt;Crucify its soul&lt;br /&gt;Though its plain to see&lt;br /&gt;This world is heavenly&lt;br /&gt;Be gods glow&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;We could fly so high&lt;br /&gt;Let our spirits never die&lt;br /&gt;In my heart&lt;br /&gt;I feel you are all&lt;br /&gt;My brothers&lt;br /&gt;Create a world with&lt;br /&gt;No fear&lt;br /&gt;Together we cry&lt;br /&gt;Happy tears&lt;br /&gt;See the nations turn&lt;br /&gt;Their swords&lt;br /&gt;Into plowshares&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;We could really get there&lt;br /&gt;If you cared enough&lt;br /&gt;For the living&lt;br /&gt;Make a little space&lt;br /&gt;To make a better place...&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Heal the world&lt;br /&gt;Make it a better place&lt;br /&gt;For you and for me&lt;br /&gt;And the entire human race&lt;br /&gt;There are people dying&lt;br /&gt;If you care enough&lt;br /&gt;For the living&lt;br /&gt;Make a better place&lt;br /&gt;For you and for me&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Heal the world&lt;br /&gt;Make it a better place&lt;br /&gt;For you and for me&lt;br /&gt;And the entire human race&lt;br /&gt;There are people dying&lt;br /&gt;If you care enough&lt;br /&gt;For the living&lt;br /&gt;Make a better place&lt;br /&gt;For you and for me&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Heal the world&lt;br /&gt;Make it a better place&lt;br /&gt;For you and for me&lt;br /&gt;And the entire human race&lt;br /&gt;There are people dying&lt;br /&gt;If you care enough&lt;br /&gt;For the living&lt;br /&gt;Make a better place&lt;br /&gt;For you and for me&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;There are people dying&lt;br /&gt;If you care enough&lt;br /&gt;For the living&lt;br /&gt;Make a better place&lt;br /&gt;For you and for me&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;There are people dying&lt;br /&gt;If you care enough&lt;br /&gt;For the living&lt;br /&gt;Make a better place&lt;br /&gt;For you and for me&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;You and for me&lt;br /&gt;You and for me&lt;br /&gt;You and for me&lt;br /&gt;You and for me&lt;br /&gt;You and for me&lt;br /&gt;You and for me&lt;br /&gt;You and for me&lt;br /&gt;You and for me&lt;br /&gt;You and for me&lt;br /&gt;You and for me&lt;br /&gt;You and for me&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com'&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-3881662610477014352?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/3881662610477014352/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/heal-world.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/3881662610477014352'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/3881662610477014352'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/heal-world.html' title='Heal The world'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-3837799804870742468</id><published>2009-08-10T12:46:00.001+07:00</published><updated>2009-08-10T12:48:01.081+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='iTech'/><title type='text'>Why You Should Use Graphic Templates</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=en&amp;w=160&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt;  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;p align="justify"&gt;When it comes to graphics, most Internet marketers shy away from using graphic templates whether it's ebook covers, website layouts or promotional banners because they firmly believe that by using graphic templates, they are tarnishing their own business. They want to own a unique identity and hence will always find a professional graphic designer to do the job. Well, you're in for a big surprise!&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;When you purchase a graphic template, you will be able to customize it to an extent or even build a totally new design based on it! What's the point of using the template then, you say? Well, it serves as a source of inspiration and ideas for a totally new design. You can't derive anything from a blank canvas, right?&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;On top of that, you are actually saving a lot of precious time that you can otherwise spend on more important matters like developing new products or market your products. When you buy a pre-made template, you only need to edit a thing or two to give it an identity of your own, and that gives you more time and flexibility to work on other stuff. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Okay, let's say you argue that hiring a designer to do the job is equally fast. That may be true but don't forget, hiring a professional designer to do a custom design for you will cost you a lot of money. Unless you need a totally unique identity that you are aiming to establish firmly in your niche market, you don't need to get a designer to design it for you.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Not all graphic templates are suitable, so you have to be careful when choosing one. Consider quality over the price, and you're on your way to creating a positive image for your business while saving more time for more productive chores!&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;read the previous article &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/why-hire-designer.html"&gt;&lt;blink&gt;Why Hire A Designer?&lt;/blink&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com'&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-3837799804870742468?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/3837799804870742468/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/why-you-should-use-graphic-templates.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/3837799804870742468'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/3837799804870742468'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/why-you-should-use-graphic-templates.html' title='Why You Should Use Graphic Templates'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-1771462946166971946</id><published>2009-08-10T12:43:00.001+07:00</published><updated>2009-08-10T12:45:54.131+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='iTech'/><title type='text'>Why Hire A Designer?</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt;  &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=en&amp;w=160&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;p align="justify"&gt;A lot of online business owners start with no money. They have to do everything themselves -- the preparation of a product, the development of a marketing strategy, the actual building of a website to cater to their product's marketing needs. As their business expands over time, they will find that their simple "homemade" site might not be enough to cover everything, and they will have to take a day or two away to simply dedicate that to the website expansion. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Sounds familiar? Chances are, you're someone who started everything with no money too, so you're pretty skeptical when it comes to giving away your money in exchange for something that you could have done yourself. However, there is a lot more to hiring a designer than just finishing up a job that you don't want to do. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;When you hire a web designer to do your job for you, you are doing more than just handing over the "dirty job" to someone else. In fact, by paying a little money, you can let the designer worry about the little annoyances that always evade the main picture and only come haunting when you're halfway through the job. That way, you will be more focused and have more time to spend on your actual business strategy. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;On the other hand, the designers you hire a professionals so they are good at what they do. By outsourcing your web design jobs to them, you won't have to worry when problems surface because you can always get them to fix it for you. Again, they will be able to pin point the problem and fix it faster than you probably will be able to. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Also, the work you pay for will turn out more professional than what you can achieve because the designers have been doing it longer than you have. After all, they do it for a living so they have to be good!&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;So, remember to not just work your business, but grow your business too!&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;read the previous article &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/who-is-your-audience.html"&gt;&lt;blink&gt;Who Is Your Audience?&lt;/blink&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com'&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-1771462946166971946?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/1771462946166971946/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/why-hire-designer.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/1771462946166971946'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/1771462946166971946'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/why-hire-designer.html' title='Why Hire A Designer?'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-8562647544050605203</id><published>2009-08-10T12:39:00.003+07:00</published><updated>2009-08-10T12:43:32.077+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='iTech'/><title type='text'>Who Is Your Audience?</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=en&amp;w=160&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt;  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;p align="justify"&gt;Understanding the type of people who visit your site is a very important task because you can use that information to enhance your site to suit them. As a result, you will gain more loyal returning visitors that come back again and again for more. &lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;What is the age level and what kind of knowledge does your audience have? A layman might linger around a general site on gardening, but a professional botanist might turn his nose at the very same site. Similarly, a regular person will leave a site filled with astronomy abstracts but a well educated university graduate will find that site interesting. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Take your audience's emotional state into consideration when building your site. If a very irritated visitor searches for a solution and comes across your site, you will want to make sure you offer the solution right up front and sell or promote your product to him second. In this way, the visitor will put his trust in you for offering the solution to his problems and is more likely to buy your product when you offer it to him after that. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;When you design the layout for your site, you have to take into account the characteristics of your audience. Are they old or young people? Are they looking for trends or are they just looking for information served without any icing on the cake? For example, introducing a new, exciting game with a simple, straightforward black text against white background page will definitely turn prospects away. Make sure your design suits your site's general theme. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Try to sprinkle colloquial language in your sites sparingly where you see fit and you will create a sense that your audience is on common ground with you. This in turn builds a trusting relationship between you and your audience, which will come in useful should you want to market a product to your audience. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;read the previous article &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/when-is-right-time-to-redesign.html"&gt;&lt;blink&gt;When Is the Right Time to Redesign?&lt;/blink&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com'&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-8562647544050605203?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/8562647544050605203/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/who-is-your-audience.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/8562647544050605203'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/8562647544050605203'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/who-is-your-audience.html' title='Who Is Your Audience?'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-4097063793931677523</id><published>2009-08-10T12:36:00.003+07:00</published><updated>2010-07-28T22:08:15.938+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='iTech'/><title type='text'>When Is the Right Time to Redesign?</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=en&amp;w=160&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt;  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;p align="justify"&gt;If you run a website, chances are you often wonder whether it is the right time to do a total redesign of the layout of your website. Here are some points to consider:&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Are you thinking of a redesign just for the sake of it? If you answered yes to that question, it is not yet the right time to do a redesign. Remember, a design serves a specific purpose. If you are not sure whether to do an overhaul of your site, keep in mind that your current design might have a specific purpose that you might not know about. You will lose that function if you do a redesign. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;On the other hand, if your website has had the same website design since 1990, perhaps it is high time to do a redesign. The last thing you would ever want to happen to your site is when visitors leave your site without taking a look at your content just because the design is old fashioned. If this is your case, here are some points to ponder before doing a redesign. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Redesigning your website is like performing plastic surgery on it. Your website loses its current identity (for the better or worse) and your regular visitors might not recognise your new design at first glance. You risk losing them just because they thought they landed on the wrong page. Hence, it is very  important that you retain a characteristic feature from your old layout. Perhaps it is the logo of your site; perhaps it is the same text style for the title for your site. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;To play it safe, put a poll on your site to let your visitors do the talking. If they think it is necessary for the website to have a fresh look, give it to them!&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;read the previous article &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/web-design-elements-you-should-avoid.html"&gt;&lt;blink&gt;Web Design Elements You Should Avoid Having on Your Site&lt;/blink&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com'&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-4097063793931677523?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/4097063793931677523/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/when-is-right-time-to-redesign_10.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/4097063793931677523'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/4097063793931677523'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/when-is-right-time-to-redesign_10.html' title='When Is the Right Time to Redesign?'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-5667971527576588917</id><published>2009-08-10T12:36:00.002+07:00</published><updated>2009-08-10T12:39:14.066+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='iTech'/><title type='text'>When Is the Right Time to Redesign?</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=en&amp;w=160&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt;  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;p align="justify"&gt;If you run a website, chances are you often wonder whether it is the right time to do a total redesign of the layout of your website. Here are some points to consider:&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Are you thinking of a redesign just for the sake of it? If you answered yes to that question, it is not yet the right time to do a redesign. Remember, a design serves a specific purpose. If you are not sure whether to do an overhaul of your site, keep in mind that your current design might have a specific purpose that you might not know about. You will lose that function if you do a redesign. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;On the other hand, if your website has had the same website design since 1990, perhaps it is high time to do a redesign. The last thing you would ever want to happen to your site is when visitors leave your site without taking a look at your content just because the design is old fashioned. If this is your case, here are some points to ponder before doing a redesign. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Redesigning your website is like performing plastic surgery on it. Your website loses its current identity (for the better or worse) and your regular visitors might not recognise your new design at first glance. You risk losing them just because they thought they landed on the wrong page. Hence, it is very  important that you retain a characteristic feature from your old layout. Perhaps it is the logo of your site; perhaps it is the same text style for the title for your site. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;To play it safe, put a poll on your site to let your visitors do the talking. If they think it is necessary for the website to have a fresh look, give it to them!&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;read the previous article &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/web-design-elements-you-should-avoid.html"&gt;&lt;blink&gt;Web Design Elements You Should Avoid Having on Your Site&lt;/blink&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com'&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-5667971527576588917?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/5667971527576588917/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/when-is-right-time-to-redesign.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/5667971527576588917'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/5667971527576588917'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/when-is-right-time-to-redesign.html' title='When Is the Right Time to Redesign?'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-5098809991169782318</id><published>2009-08-10T12:34:00.003+07:00</published><updated>2009-08-10T12:36:36.262+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='iTech'/><title type='text'>Web Design Elements You Should Avoid Having on Your Site</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=en&amp;w=160&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt;  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;p align="justify"&gt;As a web designer, you should design your websites to give your visitors the greatest ease of use, the best impression and most important of all a welcoming experience. It doesn't matter if you had the greatest product in the whole world -- if your website is poorly done you won't be able to sell even one copy of it because visitors will be driven off your website by the lousy design.&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt; &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;When I'm talking about a "good design", I'm not only talking about a good graphical design. A professional web design will be able to point out that there are many components which contribute to a good website design -- accessibility design, interface or layout design, user experience design and of course the most straightforward, which is graphic design. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Hence, I have highlighted some features of the worst web designs I've come across. Hopefully, you will be able to compare that against your own site as a checklist and if anything on your site fits the criteria, you should know it's high time to take serious action!&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1) Background music&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Unless you are running a site which promotes a band, a CD or anything related to music, I would really advise you to stay away from putting looping background music onto your site. It might sound pleasant to you at first, but imagine if you ran a big site with hundreds of pages and everytime a visitor browses to another page on your site, the background music starts playing again. If I were your visitor, I'd just turn off my speakers or leave your site. Moreover, they just add to the visitors burden when viewing your site -- users on dial up connections will have to wait longer just to view your site as it is meant to be viewed. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;2) Extra large/small text size&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;As I said, there is more to web design than purely graphics -- user accessibility is one big part of it too! You should design the text on your site to be legible and reasonably sized to enable your visitors to read it without straining their eyes. No matter how good the content of your website or your sales copy is, if it's illegible you won't be selling anything!&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;3) Popup windows&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Popup windows are so blatantly used to display advertisements that in my mind, 90% of popup windows are not worth my attention so I just close them on instinct everytime each one manages to pass through my popup blocker (yes, I do have one like many users out there!) and, well, pops up on my screen. Imagine if you had a very important message to convey and you put it in a popup window that gets killed most of the time it appears on a visitor's screen. Your website loses its function immediately!&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;In concluding this article, let me remind you that as a webmaster your job is to make sure your website does what it's meant to do effectively. Don't let some minor mistakes stop your site from functioning optimally!&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;read the previous article &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/ways-to-improve-sales-through-your.html"&gt;&lt;blink&gt;Ways To Improve Sales Through Your Website&lt;/blink&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com'&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-5098809991169782318?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/5098809991169782318/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/web-design-elements-you-should-avoid.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/5098809991169782318'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/5098809991169782318'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/web-design-elements-you-should-avoid.html' title='Web Design Elements You Should Avoid Having on Your Site'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-8247385248172932656</id><published>2009-08-10T12:30:00.001+07:00</published><updated>2009-08-10T12:33:53.935+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='iTech'/><title type='text'>Ways To Improve Sales Through Your Website</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=en&amp;w=160&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt;  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;p align="justify"&gt;Anyone who has been marketing online knows that the lifeblood of a business is the traffic of a site. More visitors equal more sales. However, here are some ways that you can tweak your sites with to improve sales without the need to get more visitors.&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The first method is to weave in your personal touch in your sales message. Nobody wants to be sold to by a total stranger, but many people will buy what their close friends recommend to them. If you can convince your audience that you are a personal friend who has their best interest at heart, they will be convinced to buy your products. Remember to speak to an individual in your salesletter, not to your whole audience. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The second method is to publish testimonials and comments from your customers. A good idea would be to publish both good and bad comments; that way prospects will be really convinced that these testimonials are real. When prospects see testimonials on your website, they will have the confidence to buy from you because human beings follow the herd mentality; when others have bought and proven it authentic, they will jump on the bandwagon and buy too. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Use visual representations for the problems and solutions that your product offers. Not everyone will read your text copy from the head to the tail, but most people will pay attention to images on your website. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Offer quality bonuses to accompany the product. When you offer bonuses that complement your product, your prospects will feel it's a very good deal and it would be stupid to miss it. Be sure to state the monetary value of your bonuses so that people will be even more compelled to grab your good bargain. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Lastly, ask for the sale! Many people entice their prospects with the benefits of their product, sell to them with stories of how it has solved many problems, even offered killer bonuses but forget to ask for the sale. Give a clear instruction on how to buy your product (e.g. "click the button to buy now!").&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;read the previous article &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/importance-of-good-design.html"&gt;&lt;blink&gt;The Importance of A Good Design&lt;/blink&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com'&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-8247385248172932656?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/8247385248172932656/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/ways-to-improve-sales-through-your.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/8247385248172932656'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/8247385248172932656'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/ways-to-improve-sales-through-your.html' title='Ways To Improve Sales Through Your Website'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-2412440221545687076</id><published>2009-08-10T12:27:00.001+07:00</published><updated>2009-08-10T12:30:52.190+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='iTech'/><title type='text'>The Importance of A Good Design</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=en&amp;w=160&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt;  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;p align="justify"&gt;Your website is the hub of your online business; it is the virtual representation of your company whether your company exists physically or not. When you are doing business online, people cannot see you physically like how they could if they were dealing with an offline company. Hence, people do judge you by your covers. This is where a good design comes in. &lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Imagine if you are running an offline company. Would you allow your salespersons to be dressed in shabby or casual clothes when they are dealing with your customers? By making your staff wear professionally, you are telling your customers that you do care about quality. This works simply because first impressions matter.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Similarly, the same case is with your website. If your website is put together shabbily and looks like a 5 minute "quick fix", you are literally shouting to your visitors that you are not professional and you do not care for quality. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;On the opposite, if you have a totally professional looking website layout, you are giving your visitors the perception that you have given meticulous attention to every detail and you care about professionalism. You are organised, focused and you really mean business. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;On the other hand, you should also have anything related to your company well designed. From business cards to letterheads to promotional brochures, every little bit matters. This is because as you grow your business, these items become the face of your business. Once again, think of the "salesperson dressed shabbily" anology, and you will get my point. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;read the previous article &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/search-engine-friendly-pages.html"&gt;&lt;blink&gt;Search Engine Friendly Pages&lt;/blink&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com'&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-2412440221545687076?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/2412440221545687076/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/importance-of-good-design.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/2412440221545687076'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/2412440221545687076'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/importance-of-good-design.html' title='The Importance of A Good Design'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-3151592134901747929</id><published>2009-08-10T12:22:00.001+07:00</published><updated>2009-08-10T12:26:59.728+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='iTech'/><title type='text'>Search Engine Friendly Pages</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt;  &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=en&amp;w=160&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;p align="justify"&gt;There is no point in building a website unless there are visitors coming in. A major source of traffic for most sites on the Internet is search engines like Google, Yahoo!, MSN, Altavista and so on. Hence, by designing a search engine friendly site, you will be able to rank easily in search engines and obtain more visitors. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Major search engines use programs called crawlers or robots to index websites to list on their search result pages. They follow links to a page, reads the content of the page and record it in their own database, pulling up the listing as people search for it. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;If you want to make your site indexed easily, you should avoid using frames on your website. Frames will only confuse search engine robots and they might even abandon your site because of that. Moreover, frames make it difficult for users to bookmark a specific page on your site without using long, complicated scripts. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Do not present important information in Flash movies or in images. Search engine robots can only read text on your source code so if you present important words in Flash movies and images rather than textual form, your search engine ranking will be affected dramatically. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Use meta tags accordingly on each and every page of your site so that search engine robots know at first glance what that particular page is about and whether or not to index it. By using meta tags, you are making the search engine robot's job easier so they will crawl and index your site more frequently. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Stop using wrong HTML tags like "font" to style your page. Use CSS (Cascading Style Sheets) instead because they are more effective and efficient. By using CSS, you can eliminate redundant HTML tags and make your pages much lighter and faster to load. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;read the previous article &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/reducing-load-time-through-image.html"&gt;&lt;blink&gt;Reducing Load Time Through Image Optimization&lt;/blink&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com'&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-3151592134901747929?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/3151592134901747929/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/search-engine-friendly-pages.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/3151592134901747929'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/3151592134901747929'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/search-engine-friendly-pages.html' title='Search Engine Friendly Pages'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-6864760113479363967</id><published>2009-08-10T12:19:00.003+07:00</published><updated>2009-08-10T12:22:13.028+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='iTech'/><title type='text'>Reducing Load Time Through Image Optimization</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=en&amp;w=160&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt;  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;p align="justify"&gt;Even though more and more Internet users switch to broadband every year, a large portion of the web's population is still running on good old dialup connections. It is therefore unwise to count them out of the equation when you're designing your website, and a very major consideration we have to make for dialup users is the loading time of your website. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Generally, all the text on your website will be loaded in a very short time even on a dialup connection. The culprit of slow-loading sites is mainly large images on your website, and it is very important to strike a delicate balance between using just enough images to attract your users and not to bog down the overall loading time of your site. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;You should also go to a greater length and optimize every image on your site to make sure it loads in the least time possible. What I really mean is to use image editing software to remove unnecessary information on your images, and thereby effectively reducing the file size of your image without affecting its appearance. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;If you own Photoshop, it will be obvious to you that when you save an image as a JPEG file, a dialog box appears and lets you choose the "quality" of the JPEG image -- normally a setting of 8 to 10 is good enough as it will preserve the quality of your image while saving it at a small file size. If you do not have Photoshop, there are many free image compressors online that you can download and use to reduce your image's file size. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;On the other hand, you can opt to save your images in PNG format to get the best quality at the least file size. You can also save your images in GIF format -- the image editing software clips away all the color information not used in your image, hence giving you the smallest file size possible. However, saving in GIF format will often compromise the appearance of your image, so make your choice wisely! &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;read the previous article &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/pros-and-cons-of-flash-based-sites.html"&gt;&lt;blink&gt;Pros and Cons of Flash-based Sites&lt;/blink&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com'&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-6864760113479363967?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/6864760113479363967/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/reducing-load-time-through-image.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/6864760113479363967'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/6864760113479363967'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/reducing-load-time-through-image.html' title='Reducing Load Time Through Image Optimization'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-3081811632784018003</id><published>2009-08-10T12:15:00.001+07:00</published><updated>2009-08-10T12:18:42.246+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='iTech'/><title type='text'>Pros and Cons of Flash-based Sites</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=en&amp;w=160&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt;  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;p align="justify"&gt;Flash-based sites have been a craze since the past few years, and as Macromedia compiles more and more great features into Flash, we can only predict there will be more and more flash sites around the Internet. However, Flash based sites have been disputed to be bloated and unnecessary. Where exactly do we draw the line? Here's a simple breakdown. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The good:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Interactivity&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Flash's Actionscript opens up a vast field of possibilities. Programmers and designers have used Flash to create interactve features ranging from very lively feedback forms to attractive Flash-based games. This whole new level of interactivity will always leave visitors coming back for more. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;A standardized site&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;With Flash, you do not have to worry about cross-browser compatibility. No more woes over how a certain css code displays differently in Internet Explorer, Firefox and Opera. When you position your site elements in Flash, they will always appear as they are as long as the user has Flash Player installed. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Better expression through animation&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;In Flash, one can make use of its animating features to convey a message in a much more efficient and effective way. Flash is a lightweight option for animation because it is vector based (and hence smaller file sizes) as opposed to real "movie files" that are raster based and hence much larger in size. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The bad and the ugly:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The Flash player&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;People have to download the Flash player in advance before they can view Flash movies, so by using Flash your visitor range will decrease considerably because not everyone will be willing to download the Flash player just to view your site. You'll also have to put in additional work in redirecting the user to the Flash download page if he or she doesn't have the player installed. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Site optimization&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;If your content was presented in Flash, most search engines wouldn't be able to index your content. Hence, you will not be able to rank well in search engines and there will be less traffic heading to your site. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Loading time&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Users have to wait longer than usual to load Flash content compared to regular text and images, and some visitors might just lose their patience and click the Back button. The longer your Flash takes to load, the more you risk losing visitors. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The best way to go is to use Flash only when you absolutely need the interactivity and motion that comes with it. Otherwise, use a mixture of Flash and HTML or use pure text if your site is purely to present simple textual and graphical information. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;read the previous article &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/mistakes-to-avoid-when-using-web.html"&gt;&lt;blink&gt;Mistakes To Avoid When Using Web Templates&lt;/blink&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com'&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-3081811632784018003?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/3081811632784018003/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/pros-and-cons-of-flash-based-sites.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/3081811632784018003'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/3081811632784018003'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/pros-and-cons-of-flash-based-sites.html' title='Pros and Cons of Flash-based Sites'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-6611753336637259966</id><published>2009-08-10T12:10:00.001+07:00</published><updated>2009-08-10T12:14:53.462+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='iTech'/><title type='text'>Mistakes To Avoid When Using Web Templates</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=en&amp;w=160&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt;  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;p align="justify"&gt;Website templates are very affordable and they save you a lot of effort and time when you want to create a new layout for your website. However, a lot of people make mistakes in the process of choosing and using a web template and end up with something that was unlike the image they had in mind. Here are some guides to help you avoid those mistakes.&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The first obvious mistake you should be aware of is using a template that is very popular. If many people use the same template, your website will not appear unique at all and your credibility as a solid, different website will be tarnished. In other words, you will appear generic just like your next-door neighbours.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;To whole point of using a web template is to save time and effort. You just change the title and appropriate details and you're done. The biggest mistake one makes is to customize the template beyond recognisation. While that may be good in the sense that you're creating a unique graphic, you're defying the very purpose of using a web template -- saving time and effort. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;However, on the opposite side, if a template you purchase is suitable but some changes must be made to suit your site's theme, then you will have to take some time to make the changes. For example, you can find a very nice template that suits your hobby site except the original designer has put an image of stamps in the header. You can find images of garden plants and spades to replace the stamps for your gardening hobby site. However, do only make the necessary changes and don't redesign the whole template. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;In some circumstances, some people simply make the wrong choice of templates. This is a very subjective issue but you have to be careful in selecting templates to suit your audience. Do not choose templates just because they are pretty, choose them because they serve your purpose. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;read the previous article &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/make-it-easy-to-buy-from-your-site.html"&gt;&lt;blink&gt;Make It Easy To Buy From Your Site&lt;/blink&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com'&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-6611753336637259966?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/6611753336637259966/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/mistakes-to-avoid-when-using-web.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/6611753336637259966'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/6611753336637259966'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/mistakes-to-avoid-when-using-web.html' title='Mistakes To Avoid When Using Web Templates'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-2387935414826784189</id><published>2009-08-10T12:04:00.002+07:00</published><updated>2009-08-10T12:09:28.094+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='iTech'/><title type='text'>Make It Easy To Buy From Your Site</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=en&amp;w=160&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt;  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;p align="justify"&gt;Convincing your prospects to purchase from you is a hard job, but have you ever thought that you're making the process twice as difficult for both parties if your prospects are convinced but don't know how to buy from you? No matter how good you are at convincing your prospects, they won't buy if they find the process cumbersome.&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;First, you will want to check that people can find your order form easily and hassle-free. You can write a clear, concise paragraph to direct your prospects to your order form so that you can minimize the chances of them getting lost. You can also reduce the chances of losing prospects by putting a prominent link to your order page from every other page on your site. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Also, do you offer multiple payment options? Some people may feel comfortable paying via Paypal, some may only want to pay with their credit card and others might want to send a cheque. The more options you offer, the better your chances of covering your prospects' desired payment method. After all, it wouldn't make any sense to sell hard to a prospect only to find that they won't be able to pay you when they want to. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;On the other hand, you will want to prove that you are a credible merchant. Is your order form secured using encryption technology? You would want to look into SSL for this. You can also offer a money back guarantee so that people will feel confident about buying from you. How about after sales support? Who do they contact when they have problems after purchasing?&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Alternatively, you can add customer testimonials, your contact information, address, and so on to boost your prospects' confidence. Make them feel safe about buying something from you, a total stranger to them on the other end of the Internet. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;As a conclusion, it would be very pitiful if you sold hard and sold well to a prospect and something goes wrong when he or she is ready to pay. Eliminate any chances of that to maximize your profits!&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;read the previous article &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/building-your-mailing-list-with.html"&gt;&lt;blink&gt;click here&lt;/blink&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com'&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-2387935414826784189?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/2387935414826784189/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/make-it-easy-to-buy-from-your-site.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/2387935414826784189'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/2387935414826784189'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/make-it-easy-to-buy-from-your-site.html' title='Make It Easy To Buy From Your Site'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-6472891590004977463</id><published>2009-08-09T13:39:00.002+07:00</published><updated>2009-08-09T13:43:31.394+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='iTech'/><title type='text'>Building Your Mailing List with Downloads</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=en&amp;w=160&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt;  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;p align="justify"&gt;A mailing list is the lifeblood of your online business. The old adage "the money is in the list" cannot be true enough -- if you had a targeted list of prospects to contact each time you have a new product, you will be able to save a lot of effort by marketing it to your existing list of targeted prospects. &lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;You can actually build up a targeted list of prospects that are interested in your products by offering a relevant download on your website. For example, let's take a look at a very good example -- apple.com. When you download the free iTunes and Quicktime software from their site, they will ask you to fill in an optional name and email form so that they can send you offers on songs that you can purchase via -- guess where -- iTunes!&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;In reality, you do not need to offer such a "heavyweight" download such as a full-feature software like iTunes.  You can attract prospects equally well with some quality freebies such as a simple report, a free wallpaper, and so on. The important thing is that your download offers enough value for the prospect to be willing to give away his/her own email address to get it. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;However, slapping together a simple download and putting a link on your website won't be enough to attract qualified prospects. You will have to do some homework in order for your lead-generating mechanism to work well for you. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;First of all, you must place your download form prominently on your website. Preferably, dedicate a page to it and link to that page from every other page of your website. That way, there is no way your visitors cannot find the download page, and when they do, you'll get some of them converted into your prospects!&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Also, you have to put a little effort into promoting your download. Explain and elaborate on the values of the download, and why your visitors should download it. You might think why would anyone want to pass on a freebie, but most of your visitors would be too lazy to take the effort to download it because most of their downloads just sit on the harddisk collecting virtual dust. It is hence important to show your visitors why they should download your freebie.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;read the previous article &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/improve-usability-of-your-website.html"&gt;&lt;blink&gt;&lt;i&gt;Improve Usability of Your Website&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/blink&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com'&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-6472891590004977463?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/6472891590004977463/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/building-your-mailing-list-with.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/6472891590004977463'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/6472891590004977463'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/building-your-mailing-list-with.html' title='Building Your Mailing List with Downloads'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-8668300846061184947</id><published>2009-08-09T13:26:00.003+07:00</published><updated>2009-08-09T13:34:18.741+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='iTech'/><title type='text'>Improve Usability of Your Website</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=en&amp;w=160&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt;  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;p align="justify"&gt;No matter how brilliant your website design is, if it is hard to reach the content of your site then your site is as useful as an empty shell. Here are some tips to improve the usability of your website to ensure it serves its functions optimally.&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The first method is to make sure the typography of your content is suitable. If you have large blocks of text, make sure to use CSS to space out the lines accordingly. The longer a single line of text is, the greater the line-height of each line should be. Also, make sure the font size of your text is big enough to read easily. Some sites have 10-pixel-tall text in Verdana font; while that may look neat and tidy, you have to really strain your eyes to read the actual text. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Make it easy for visitors to find content that they want on your site. If you have thousands of articles on your site and a certain visitor wants to find one single article from that pile, you have to provide a feasible means to enable visitors to do that without hassle. Be it an SQL-driven database search engine or just a glossary or index of articles that you have, providing such a feature will make sure your visitors can use your site with ease. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Ensure that your site loads fast if you do not want to lose visitors. Most internet users will leave a website if it doesn't load completely within 15 seconds, so make sure the crème de la crème of your website is delivered to the visitors as soon as possible to retain their attention. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Last of all, test each and every link on your site before it goes online. There is nothing more effective in tarnishing your professional image than broken links, so be very careful about that. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;read the previous post &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/grandness-of-sitemap.html"&gt;&lt;blink&gt;The grandness of a Sitemap&lt;/blink&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com'&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-8668300846061184947?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/8668300846061184947/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/improve-usability-of-your-website.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/8668300846061184947'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/8668300846061184947'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/08/improve-usability-of-your-website.html' title='Improve Usability of Your Website'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-4885021122942119994</id><published>2009-07-30T13:20:00.002+07:00</published><updated>2009-07-30T13:35:31.869+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='iTech'/><title type='text'>The grandness of a Sitemap</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=en&amp;w=160&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;p align="justify"&gt;A sitemap is often considered redundant in the process of building a website, and that's indeed the fact if you made a sitemap for the sake of having one. By highlighting the importance of having a well constructed sitemap, you'll be able to tailor your own sitemap to suit your own needs. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1) Navigation purposes&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;A sitemap literally acts as a map of your site. If your visitors browses your site and gets lost between the thousands of pages on your site, they can always refer to your sitemap to see where they're, and navigate through your pages with the utmost ease. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;2) Conveying your site's theme&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;When your visitors load up your sitemap, they'll get the gist of your site within a very short amount of time. There's no need to get the "big picture" of your site by reading through each page, and by doing that you'll be saving your visitors' time. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;3) Site optimization purposes&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;When you create a sitemap, you're actually creating a single page which contains links to every single page on your site. Imagine what happens when search engine robots hit this page -- they'll follow the links on the sitemap and naturally every single page of your site gets indexed by search engines! It is also for this purpose that a link to the sitemap has to be placed prominently on the front page of your website. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;4) Organization and relevance&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;A sitemap enables you to have a complete bird's eye view of your site structure, and whenever you need to add new content or new sections, you'll be able to take the existing hierarchy into consideration just by glancing at the sitemap. As a result, you'll have a perfectly organized site with everything sorted according to their relevance. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;From the above reasons, it's most crucial to implement a sitemap for website projects with a considerable size. Through this way, you'll be able to keep your website easily accesible and neatly organized for everyone. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;read our previous article &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/how-to-have-websites-built-for-you.html"&gt;&lt;blink&gt;&lt;i&gt;click here&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/blink&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/"&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-4885021122942119994?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/4885021122942119994/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/grandness-of-sitemap.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/4885021122942119994'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/4885021122942119994'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/grandness-of-sitemap.html' title='The grandness of a Sitemap'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-9194148364283606458</id><published>2009-07-25T23:20:00.005+07:00</published><updated>2009-07-25T23:33:36.481+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='iTech'/><title type='text'>How To Have Websites Built For You The Cheap Way</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt;&lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=en&amp;w=160&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p align="justify"&gt;Normally, if you desire to have professional designers custom build your site, you must be prepared to looker out at littlest some hundred dollars. All this can change if you know wherever to find the best deals, the best designs for the lowest price. Here's a rough guide:&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;First, you must understand that it's a rip turned to get companies to design websites for you. Have you ever seen those advertisements in newspaper classified advertisement sections that offer a 5-page website at $500? These companies are established companies with physical locations, therefore they've to increase the amount they charge to bribe some overheads: office rent, designer's wages, advertising costs etc.. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Therefore, it aspiring knowing find freelance designers who work from home. These people are often working from home so they don't have a high operation cost like that of a company. On the other hand, they'll be able to design images with quality similar to those of designers from big companies, so it's a "no-brainer" choice. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;However, choose freelancers with care. The best way commotion this wishful to belong to elance.com. There, you can post the abstract of your project and get thousands of freelancers to bid on your project, so you'll surely overcome deal. On top of that, you'll be able to choose the designers based on their experience, past transactions and ratings, so your value for money is secured. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Another route you are able to take is to design your website yourself. Flirt with it, if you only need 5 simple pages to present some simple information, why waste hundreds of dollars for it? Just spend a bit time to sit down and do it yourself. You'll be able to design your own sites even if you don't know a single line of HTML code with the help of WYSIWYG (what you see is what you get) programs such as Microsoft Frontpage, Macromedia Dreamweaver and so forth. y&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;read the previous articles &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/search/label/iTech"&gt;&lt;blink&gt;click here&lt;/blink&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com'&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-9194148364283606458?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/9194148364283606458/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/how-to-have-websites-built-for-you.html#comment-form' title='1 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/9194148364283606458'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/9194148364283606458'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/how-to-have-websites-built-for-you.html' title='How To Have Websites Built For You The Cheap Way'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>1</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-80223156001802906</id><published>2009-07-25T22:41:00.004+07:00</published><updated>2009-07-25T23:19:20.531+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Dental'/><title type='text'>Aplikasi resin komposit pada kavitas kelas V dan VI</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;amp;up_source_language=id&amp;amp;w=157&amp;amp;h=60&amp;amp;title=&amp;amp;border=&amp;amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt;  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;p align="justify"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;u&gt;Aplikasi resin komposit pada kavitas kelas V&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/Smssbykm2gI/AAAAAAAAAHk/QMkIf9lvzdw/s1600-h/aplikasi+resin+komposit+kelas+V%282%29.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 175px; height: 188px;" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/Smssbykm2gI/AAAAAAAAAHk/QMkIf9lvzdw/s200/aplikasi+resin+komposit+kelas+V%282%29.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5362428637258111490" border="0" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;center&gt;Gambar 1. 37 Aplikasi resin komposit pada kavitas kelas V anterior&lt;/center&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;a. Enamel hipoplastik pada labial I1&lt;br /&gt;b. Dilakukan preparasi modifikasi pada bagian tersebut menggunakan diamond bur&lt;br /&gt;c. Gel etsa diaplikasikan pada kavitas dengan syringe&lt;br /&gt;d. Aplikasikan resin bonding, sinari 20 detik.&lt;br /&gt;e. Aplikasikan resin komposit light cure&lt;br /&gt;f. Kontur resin komposit dengan menggunakan titanium nitride instrument&lt;br /&gt;g. Sinari 40 detik&lt;br /&gt;h. Digunakan alat (warna orange) untuk proteksi sinar&lt;br /&gt;i. Lakukan finishing dengan fine finishing diamond bur&lt;br /&gt;j. Lakukan polishing dengan silicone rubber&lt;br /&gt;k. Restorasi selesai&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;u&gt;Aplikasi resin komposit pada kavitas kelas VI &lt;/u&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SmsscOLLvtI/AAAAAAAAAHs/WcB3ZRfzy10/s1600-h/aplikasi+resin+komposit+kelas+VI.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 200px; height: 44px;" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SmsscOLLvtI/AAAAAAAAAHs/WcB3ZRfzy10/s200/aplikasi+resin+komposit+kelas+VI.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5362428644667670226" border="0" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;center&gt;Gambar 1.38  Preparasi dan aplikasi resin komposit pada Kelas VI &lt;/center&gt;&lt;br /&gt;A. Terdapat karies pada Cusp bukal P1 RA&lt;br /&gt;B. Jaringan karies dibuang dengan menggunakan small round bur&lt;br /&gt;C. Cusp dipreparasi dengan flame-shape atau round diamond bur. Setelah dilakukan preparasi pada cusp dengan retensi berupa undercut padadasar kavitas, dilakukan etsa dan pemberian bonding. Setelah itu resin komposit ditempatkan pada kavitas dan dikontur serta dipoles.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;untuk membaca lanjutan dari jurnal ini silakan baca Tehnik Sandwich &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/tehnik-sandwich.html"&gt;&lt;blink&gt;klik disini&lt;/blink&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/"&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-80223156001802906?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/80223156001802906/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/aplikasi-resin-komposit-pada-kavitas.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/80223156001802906'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/80223156001802906'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/aplikasi-resin-komposit-pada-kavitas.html' title='Aplikasi resin komposit pada kavitas kelas V dan VI'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/Smssbykm2gI/AAAAAAAAAHk/QMkIf9lvzdw/s72-c/aplikasi+resin+komposit+kelas+V%282%29.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-587225902373163031</id><published>2009-07-25T21:28:00.010+07:00</published><updated>2009-07-26T00:53:26.181+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Dental'/><title type='text'>Tehnik Sandwich</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;amp;up_source_language=id&amp;amp;w=157&amp;amp;h=60&amp;amp;title=&amp;amp;border=&amp;amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt;  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;p align="justify"&gt;&lt;b&gt;1.11 Tehnik Sandwich&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt; Penggunaan  Glass ionomer sebagai basis di bawah restorasi resin komposit.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Untuk kavitas yang dalam.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Untuk meminimalisir microleakage --&gt;meningkatkan kekuatan  dan perlekatan restorasi.  Glass ionomer berikatan secara kimia pada dentin.  &lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Digunakan GIC Tipe III atau RMGIC (baik yang autocured maupun light cured)&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Dianjurkan menggunakan microfiller composite&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SmsTMra4S-I/AAAAAAAAAGU/24KkFA8N-fQ/s1600-h/sandwich.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 200px; height: 87px;" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SmsTMra4S-I/AAAAAAAAAGU/24KkFA8N-fQ/s200/sandwich.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5362400889849531362" border="0" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;center&gt;Gambar 1.38 a.Restorasi Sandwich terbuka dan b.Restorasi Sandwich tertutup&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/center&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;b&gt;Prosedur pembuatan restorasi sandwich&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Tabel 1.2 Prosedur restorasi sandwich pada kavitas klasII menggunakan GIC self cure dan resin Komposit self cure&lt;table border="1"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SmsfaTjQ7OI/AAAAAAAAAGc/-xWvirR2Ayw/s1600-h/pembuatan+sandwich+1.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 150px; height: 88px;" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SmsfaTjQ7OI/AAAAAAAAAGc/-xWvirR2Ayw/s200/pembuatan+sandwich+1.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5362414318099950818" border="0" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;Kavitas klas II yang dipreparasi konvensional dengan bevel dan retensi tambahan berbentuk dovetail.&lt;br /&gt;Matriks dipasang pada bagian proksimal.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/Smsg7VN5ToI/AAAAAAAAAGk/UxsaxCQufaM/s1600-h/pembuatan+sandwich+2.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 145px; height: 86px;" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/Smsg7VN5ToI/AAAAAAAAAGk/UxsaxCQufaM/s200/pembuatan+sandwich+2.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5362415984994504322" border="0" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;Pemberian kondisioner (asam polialkenoat 10%)pada dentin selama 10-15 detik, bilas dengan air, keringkan sebatas lembab.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SmsiHmuJWpI/AAAAAAAAAGs/sW17Nn60AuQ/s1600-h/pembuatan+sandwich+3.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 147px; height: 79px;" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SmsiHmuJWpI/AAAAAAAAAGs/sW17Nn60AuQ/s200/pembuatan+sandwich+3.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5362417295363234450" border="0" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;Aplikasikan GIC tipe III bentuk sbg basis dengan P/L ratio = 3:1. Pada gambar yang digunakan adalah GIC jenis self-cure Maka selanjutnya perlu dilakukan etsa asam.&lt;/td&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SmsiH0FiRVI/AAAAAAAAAG0/D1zBUNOaXxI/s1600-h/pembuatan+sandwich+4.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 141px; height: 81px;" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SmsiH0FiRVI/AAAAAAAAAG0/D1zBUNOaXxI/s200/pembuatan+sandwich+4.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5362417298950997330" border="0" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;Lakukan etsa pada permukaan GIC yang akan berkontak dengan resin komposit dan dinding-dinding kavitas selama 15-20 detik atau sesuai dengan petunjuk pabrik. *&lt;/td&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SmsiIKoqr8I/AAAAAAAAAG8/vz4dGmMwTcQ/s1600-h/pembuatan+sandwich+5.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 144px; height: 78px;" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SmsiIKoqr8I/AAAAAAAAAG8/vz4dGmMwTcQ/s200/pembuatan+sandwich+5.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5362417305003929538" border="0" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;- Kavitas dibilas dengan air, tanpa tekanan, selama 1-2 menit.&lt;br /&gt;Keringkan kavitas dengan sponge-pellet, atau disemprot udara perlahan / dengan chip-blower&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/Smsj4MZh0_I/AAAAAAAAAHE/3Patcw1hh2M/s1600-h/pembuatan+sandwich+6.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 146px; height: 89px;" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/Smsj4MZh0_I/AAAAAAAAAHE/3Patcw1hh2M/s200/pembuatan+sandwich+6.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5362419229622653938" border="0" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;Aplikasikan bonding agent secara tipis diamkan sekitar 10 detik agar zat pelarutnya menguap, semprot perlahan dengan pengering udara/ chip-blower, sinari 20 detik&lt;/td&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/Smsk1C1KJ2I/AAAAAAAAAHc/c6V33_7IaMY/s1600-h/pembuatan+sandwich+7.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 152px; height: 76px;" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/Smsk1C1KJ2I/AAAAAAAAAHc/c6V33_7IaMY/s200/pembuatan+sandwich+7.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5362420275026208610" border="0" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;Aplikasikan bahan resin komposit (sesuai dengan jenis resin komposit yang dipakai. Misal: pada gambar digunakan komposit self- cure)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/Smsj4k5krzI/AAAAAAAAAHU/vSHPcyGe0lQ/s1600-h/pembuatan+sandwich+8.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 158px; height: 78px;" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/Smsj4k5krzI/AAAAAAAAAHU/vSHPcyGe0lQ/s200/pembuatan+sandwich+8.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5362419236199509810" border="0" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;Lakukan finishing dan polishing&lt;/td&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;untuk membaca lanjutan dari jurnal ini silakan &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/direct-composite-veneer-untuk-koreksi.html"&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;blink&gt;klik disini&lt;/blink&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/"&gt;&lt;b&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-587225902373163031?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/587225902373163031/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/tehnik-sandwich.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/587225902373163031'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/587225902373163031'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/tehnik-sandwich.html' title='Tehnik Sandwich'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SmsTMra4S-I/AAAAAAAAAGU/24KkFA8N-fQ/s72-c/sandwich.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-1683726534618492625</id><published>2009-07-25T19:47:00.004+07:00</published><updated>2009-07-25T20:04:08.832+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Dental'/><title type='text'>DIRECT COMPOSITE VENEER UNTUK KOREKSI DIASTEMA ATAU FRAKTUR INSISAL PENUH</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt;  &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;amp;up_source_language=id&amp;amp;w=157&amp;amp;h=60&amp;amp;title=&amp;amp;border=&amp;amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;p align="justify"&gt;&lt;b&gt;1.12   DIRECT COMPOSITE VENEER UNTUK KOREKSI DIASTEMA ATAU FRAKTUR INSISAL PENUH&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt; Menggunakan hybrid composite&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Lakukan etsa 15 detik pada enamel yang telah dipreparasi. Cuci sampai bersih, keringkan.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Aplikasikan bahan bonding. Keringkan dan  Sinari 20 detik.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Bagian labial gigi dilapisi resin komposit sewarna dentin mulai dari ginggiva dan di atasnya dilapisi komposit sewarna enamel &lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Bagian proksimal mesial untuk menghilangkan diastema, penambahan komposit dimulai dari bawah puncak ginggiva. Perbandingan lebar mesio-distal dengan panjang serviko-insisal yang baik adalah 3 : 4.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;p align="justify"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;b&gt;1.13   PEMBUATAN  PASAK  DAN INTI  DARI  RESIN KOMPOSIT&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;menggunakan makrofiller composite (dengan merk tertentu)&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;p align="justify"&gt; Prosedur :&lt;/p&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;Bila telah dirawat saluran akar&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Bahan pengisi saluran akar (gutta percha) dikeluarkan sesuai kedalaman yang dibutuhkan menggunakan reamer. Lalu dibuat retensi pada saluran akar. Setelah preparasi saluran akar selesai, dilakukan pemilihan mahkota polikarbonat dan dipaskan dengan gigi yang akan direstorasi. Bagian dalam mahkota polikarbonat tersebut diolesi dengan bahan separasi. Isolasi jaringan di sekitar gigi dengan rubber dam untuk mencegah iritasi dari bahan resin terhadap ginggiva.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Selanjutnya saluran akar dikeringkan, resin komposit dimasukkan ke dalam saluran akar dengan menggunakan syringe secara berlebihan. Mahkota yang telah diulasi bahan separasi tadi selanjutnya diisi dengan resin komposit yang sama lalu disatukan dengan resin komposit yang ada di akar gigi. Bagian yang berlebihan dibuang sebelum mengeras. Sedangkan mahkota polikarbonat tetap dipertahankan selama 8 menit untuk mencapai pengerasan resin komposit. Setelah resin komposit mengeras, lepas mahkota polikarbonat. Selanjutnya dilakukan preparasi inti untuk menerima restorasi akhir.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Bila fraktur gigi tidak menyebabkan perforasi pulpa:Inti dibentuk dan ditahan dengan menggunakan pasak dentin. Indikasi untuk lanjut usia yang pulpanya mengalami penurunan.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;p align="justify"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;untuk membaca lanjutan jurnal diatas silakan &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/kompomer.html"&gt;&lt;blink&gt;&lt;i&gt;klik disini&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/blink&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/"&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-1683726534618492625?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/1683726534618492625/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/direct-composite-veneer-untuk-koreksi.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/1683726534618492625'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/1683726534618492625'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/direct-composite-veneer-untuk-koreksi.html' title='DIRECT COMPOSITE VENEER UNTUK KOREKSI DIASTEMA ATAU FRAKTUR INSISAL PENUH'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-4099975112731090647</id><published>2009-07-25T19:23:00.003+07:00</published><updated>2009-07-25T19:45:22.734+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Dental'/><title type='text'>KOMPOMER</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=id&amp;w=157&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt;  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;p align="justify"&gt;&lt;b&gt;2.      KOMPOMER&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;b&gt;2.1   Komposisi Kompomer&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Kompomer --&gt; Komposit + Glass Ionomer&lt;br /&gt;  &lt;br /&gt;- Komponen resinnya: polycarboxylic acid + methacrylate --&gt;ikatan silang antara gugus methacrylate-komposit-karboksil yang berdasarkan reaksi asam-basa seperti glass-ionomer&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;- Filler : barium/strontium fluorosilicate glass. 2,37 µm -9,36 µm&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Sifat-sifat kompomer:&lt;br /&gt;• Berisi pasta yaitu Ca, Al, F, &lt;br /&gt;• Mengeras dengan polimerisasi C=C dari metakrilat (reaksi asam basa yang tertunda di antara glass dan molekul asam)&lt;br /&gt;• Berikatan dengan gigi melalui bahan adhesif (memerlukan etsa asam)&lt;br /&gt;• Kuat, biokomptabilitas dan kelarutan rendah&lt;br /&gt;• Lebih kuat terhadap keausan daripada resin komposit&lt;br /&gt;• Pelepasan  Fluoride yang lebih rendah dari GIC. Pelepasan maksimal pada 24-48 jam pertama. Tetapi dapat mengabsorbsi Fluoride pada pemberian aplikasi fluoride topikal --&gt;disimpan untuk cadangan pelepasan.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;b&gt;2.2 Polimerisasi Kompomer&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Kompomer menggunakan sistem aktivasi sinar. Terdiri dari 2 tahap yaitu:&lt;br /&gt;- Tahap 1 : aktivasi sinar tampak --&gt;bahan restorasi mengeras&lt;br /&gt;- Tahap 2 : terjadi reaksi asam basa secara perlahan&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;b&gt;2.3 Keuntungan dan Kerugian&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Mempunyai keuntungan yang hampir sama dengan resin komposit, :&lt;br /&gt;-  warna estetik&lt;br /&gt;- Adanya pelepasan fluoride .&lt;br /&gt;- Mudah untuk dioperasikan. Dikemas dalam satu komponen tunggal beebentuk pasta.&lt;br /&gt;- Bersifat kariostasis dan Iritan terhadap pulpa sangat kecil&lt;br /&gt;- Pembuangan jaringan tidak invasif&lt;br /&gt;- Radiopak &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Kerugian&lt;br /&gt;- Penyusutan polimerisasi sebesar 2-3% &lt;br /&gt;- Memerlukan etsa dan bonding, dan light curing unit&lt;br /&gt;- Sensitifitas pasien dan operator terhadap komponen adhesive resin, khususnya  (HEMA)&lt;br /&gt;- Diskolorasi dan absorpsi air pada bagian marginal setelah beberapa tahun&lt;br /&gt;- Secara kelseluruhan, sifat fisik lebih rendah daripada resin komposit dan GIC&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;b&gt;2.4 Indikasi dan Kontraindikasi&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Indikasi&lt;br /&gt;- Kelas I decidui&lt;br /&gt;- Kelas II decidui&lt;br /&gt;- Kelas III&lt;br /&gt;- Kelas V --&gt;restorasi servikal dan karies akar sebab daya tahan terhadap abrasinya lebih bagus daripada resin komposit hibrid.&lt;br /&gt;- Pit&amp;fissure sealant&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Kontraindikasi &lt;br /&gt;- Klas I, Klas II, Klas IV, Klas VI&lt;br /&gt;- Jika pasien mempunyai alergi terhadap satu atau lebih bahan restorasi resin, termasuk sistem adhesive. &lt;br /&gt;- Pada kotak interproximal yang dalam, karena peningkatan jarak dari sumber cahaya.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;baca lanjutan jurnal ini Desain Preparasi Kavitas untuk Restorasi Kompomer &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/desain-preparasi-kavitas-untuk.html"&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;blink&gt;click disini&lt;/blink&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com'&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-4099975112731090647?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/4099975112731090647/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/kompomer.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/4099975112731090647'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/4099975112731090647'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/kompomer.html' title='KOMPOMER'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-1874224485294163641</id><published>2009-07-25T16:24:00.006+07:00</published><updated>2009-07-25T19:23:02.217+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Dental'/><title type='text'>Desain Preparasi Kavitas untuk Restorasi Kompomer</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt;  &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;amp;up_source_language=id&amp;amp;w=157&amp;amp;h=60&amp;amp;title=&amp;amp;border=&amp;amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;p align="justify"&gt;&lt;b&gt;2.5 Desain Preparasi Kavitas untuk Restorasi Kompomer&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;preparasi modifikasi (hanya membuang jaringan gigi yang karies/ membuang sesedikit mungkin jaringan gigi) atau bisa juga daerah enamel rod yang tidak terbuka dibuat bevel.&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;b&gt;2.5.1 Kelas I decidui&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SmrUNOIvBYI/AAAAAAAAAF0/6CDpSHD1Iec/s1600-h/aplikasi+kompomer+kelas+1+decidui.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 200px; height: 98px;" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SmrUNOIvBYI/AAAAAAAAAF0/6CDpSHD1Iec/s200/aplikasi+kompomer+kelas+1+decidui.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5362331629936117122" border="0" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Gambar 2.1 Aplikasi kompomer pada kavitas kelas I decidui&lt;br /&gt;a. karies pada oklusal 64&lt;br /&gt;b. Dipreparasi menggunakan 33o turbide bur&lt;br /&gt;c. Bentuk ouline kavitas sebelum pengambilan seluruh karies&lt;br /&gt;d. Karies dihilangkan dengan roun bur low speed menggunakan water cooling&lt;br /&gt;e. Kavitas selesai dipreparasi dan diberikan liner yang sesuai&lt;br /&gt;f. Aplikasikan etsa, bonding dan kompomer pada kavitas.&lt;br /&gt;g. Restorasi sebelum diberi fissure sealant&lt;br /&gt;h. Fissure sealant diaplikasikan untuk melindungi permukaan oklusal yang mudah karies (mencegah terjadinya karies sekunder akibat microleakage)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;b&gt;2.5.2 Kelas II decidui&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SmraEqlGz2I/AAAAAAAAAF8/S43lkGsg-Cs/s1600-h/kelas+2+decidui.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 200px; height: 169px;" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SmraEqlGz2I/AAAAAAAAAF8/S43lkGsg-Cs/s200/kelas+2+decidui.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5362338080022253410" border="0" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Gambar 2. 1 preparasi kelas II dan aplikasi kompomer pada kelas II gigi sulung&lt;br /&gt;a. Terdapat proksimal karies pada gigi 55 (karies telah dibuang)&lt;br /&gt;Sebelum dirawat,pasien dianestesi dulu. Daerah kerja Telah isolasi dengan rubber dam&lt;br /&gt;b. Dipreparasi menggunakan roun bur berbentuk boks&lt;br /&gt;c. Terjadi pendarahan pada gingiva interdentalis&lt;br /&gt;d. Pendarahan dihentikan dengan menggunakan ferric sulfat (astringident)&lt;br /&gt;e. Matriks dan wedge dipasang.&lt;br /&gt;f. Lakukan etsa asam dan Beri bahan bonding- disinar 20 detik.&lt;br /&gt;g. Penempatan kompomer dalam kavitas&lt;br /&gt;h. Kompomer  disinar 40 detik&lt;br /&gt;i. Tampak kompomer setelah disinar&lt;br /&gt;j. Lakukan finishing dan polishing&lt;br /&gt;k. Untuk tindakan preventif –diberi Pit&amp;amp;fissure sealant&lt;br /&gt;l. Restorasi selesai.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;b&gt;2.5.3 Kelas III&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/Smr3SulzOjI/AAAAAAAAAGE/X9YM4WzfgXg/s1600-h/gambar+3.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 200px; height: 92px;" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/Smr3SulzOjI/AAAAAAAAAGE/X9YM4WzfgXg/s200/gambar+3.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5362370207454280242" border="0" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Gambar 2.3 Aplikasi kompomer pada kavitas Kelas III&lt;br /&gt;a. kavitas kelas III yang telah dipreparasi modifikasi dengan cavosurface dibevel&lt;br /&gt;b. Pemasangan Poliester strip&lt;br /&gt;c. Kavitas dietsa, diberi bonding&lt;br /&gt;d. Aplikasikan kompomer pada kavitas&lt;br /&gt;e. Lakukan light curing 40 detik dari labial sementara menekan kedua sisi poliester strip&lt;br /&gt;f. Lakukan ligh curing dari bagian palatal 40 detik&lt;br /&gt;g. Contoh konturing restorasi kompomer dengan hand instrument&lt;br /&gt;h. Pemolesan kompomer dengan silicon rubber&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;b&gt;2.5.4 Klas V &lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/Smr4DKbQB6I/AAAAAAAAAGM/A6b2N4yD7XI/s1600-h/2.5.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 200px; height: 141px;" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/Smr4DKbQB6I/AAAAAAAAAGM/A6b2N4yD7XI/s200/2.5.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5362371039559944098" border="0" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Gambar 2.4Preparasi kelas V dan Aplikasi kompomer pada kavitas Kelas V&lt;br /&gt;a. Bila karies besar, dibentuk preparasi konvensional dengan bevel&lt;br /&gt;b. Aplikasikan etsa dan bonding agent&lt;br /&gt;c. Penempatan kompomer pada kavitas, dan dikontur&lt;br /&gt;d. Beri sinar 40 detik&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;baca selanjutnya tentang aplikasi kompomer &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/aplikasi-kompomer.html"&gt;&lt;blink&gt;&lt;i&gt;klik disini&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/blink&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/"&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-1874224485294163641?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/1874224485294163641/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/desain-preparasi-kavitas-untuk.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/1874224485294163641'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/1874224485294163641'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/desain-preparasi-kavitas-untuk.html' title='Desain Preparasi Kavitas untuk Restorasi Kompomer'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SmrUNOIvBYI/AAAAAAAAAF0/6CDpSHD1Iec/s72-c/aplikasi+kompomer+kelas+1+decidui.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-1307921251503890389</id><published>2009-07-25T15:58:00.002+07:00</published><updated>2009-07-25T16:19:43.777+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Dental'/><title type='text'>Aplikasi Kompomer</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt;  &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;amp;up_source_language=id&amp;amp;w=157&amp;amp;h=60&amp;amp;title=&amp;amp;border=&amp;amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;p align="justify"&gt;2.6 Aplikasi Kompomer&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1.  Membersihkan permukaan gigi  menggunakan pumice dan air untuk meningkatkan adesi.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;2.  Pada kasus enamel yang tidak dapat dietsa atau karies pada akar maka  tahapnya sebagai berikut :&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;a.  mengulaskan bahan kondisioner, keringkan dengan semprotan udara sampai keadaannya lembab, jangan sampai overdrying&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;b.  Mengulaskan primer pada dentin, sinari dengan sinar biru . (didapatkan pula dentin conditioner dan primer dalam satu kemasan)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;c.  Pemberian dentin bonding agent, sinari dengan sinar biru 20 detik. (didapatkan pula primer dan bonding agent dalam satu kemasan)Setelah diberi bahan bonding  kavitas akan nampak mengkilap&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Pada kavitas yang dalam :&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;a.  Dasar kavitas diberi liner / basis semen&lt;br /&gt;b.  Dilakukan etsa asam pada enamel (prosedur sama seperti etsa untuk resin komposit)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;3.  Sebelum aplikasi bahan restorasi, gunakan matriks band untuk kelas V, kelas II decidui, seluloid strip untuk kelas III agar didapatkan adaptasi yang baik serta lakukan seleksi warna.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;4.  Aplikasikan bahan kompomer selapis demi lapis dengan ketebalan bahan maksimal 2mm. Seperti halnya resin komppsoit, kompomer sudah dikemas dalam bentuk pasta. Karena pengerasannya dengan aktivas sinar, kompomer ini tersedia dalam bentuk pasta tunggal saja.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;5.  Sinari selama 40 detik tiap lapisnya.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;6.  finishing dan polishing&lt;br /&gt;Dilakukan setelah 24 jam dari aplikasi bahan restorasi. Tahap penyelesaian dan pemolesan sama dengan tahap untuk resin komposit.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;berikut adalah daftar pustaka dari jurnal kami &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/daftar-pustaka-jurnal-komposit-kompomer.html"&gt;&lt;blink&gt;klik disini&lt;/blink&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/"&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-1307921251503890389?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/1307921251503890389/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/aplikasi-kompomer.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/1307921251503890389'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/1307921251503890389'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/aplikasi-kompomer.html' title='Aplikasi Kompomer'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-6854170100686550927</id><published>2009-07-25T15:34:00.004+07:00</published><updated>2009-07-25T15:57:12.217+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Dental'/><title type='text'>Daftar Pustaka Jurnal Komposit-Kompomer</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt;  &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=en&amp;w=160&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;p align="justify"&gt;&lt;b&gt;Daftar Pustaka&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Althoff, Olaf,. et al.  Curing performance of a new-generation light-emitting diode dental curing unit.  J Am Dent Assoc. 2004;135;1471-1479. Available from: http://jada.ada.org/   Accessed on : Oktober 18, 2008  11.50 am.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Andang, Milly Armilia, Taofik Hidayat. Bleaching dan Direct Composite Veneer pada Gigi Anterior yang Mengalami Perubahan Warna. Jurnal Kedokteran Gigi. 2002 : 14 (2); 37-43. Available from: http://resources.unpad.ac.id/    Accessed on : April 19, 2009 at  08.22 am.&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Anggraeni, Ajeng., et al. Perlekatan koloni Streptococcus mutans pada permukaan resin komposit sinar tampak (The adherence of Streptococcus mutans colony to surface visible light composite resins). Maj.Ked.Gigi. (Dent.J.). 2005 ; 38(1): 8–11. Available from: http://www.journal.unair.ac.id/   Accessed on March 18,2009 at 2.07 pm.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Anusavice, K.J. 2004. Buku Ajar Ilmu Bahan Kedokteran Gigi Edisi 10. Jakarta : Penerbit Buku Kedokteran EGC. Pp:251-253.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Ascheim KW, Dale BG. 2001. Esthetic Dentistry A Clinical Approach to Techniques and Materials 2nd Ed. St Luois, Missouri : Mosby, Inc. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Baum,Lloyd. 1997. Buku Ajar Ilmu Konservasi Gigi. Edisi 3. Jakarta: EGC.pp; 252-291.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Christensen,J.Gordon. Self-etching Primer are Here.  J Am Den Assoc. 2001: 132; 1041-1043. Available from: http://jada.ada.org/   Accessed on : April 1, 2009  11.50 am.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Combe, E.C. 1992. Notes on Dental Material. 6th  Ed. Chicago: Churchill  Livingstone. p.89-95.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Duggal,MS. et al. 2002. Restorative  Technique in Pediatric Dentistry : an ilustrated guide to the restoration of carious primary teeth. 2nd Ed. UK: Martin Dunitz.pp: 103-114. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Eccles,J.D. 1994.The Conservation of the Teeth.2nd Ed. Oxford:Blackwell Sc.P.Ltd..pp; 75-124&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Edwina A. M. Kidd, et al. 2003. Pickard’s Manual of Operative dentistry 8th Ed. New york : Oxford University Press &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Hatrick CD, Eakle WS, Bird WF. 2003. Dental Materials Clinical Applications for Dental Assistants and Dental Hygienists. Missouri: Elsevier science&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Hendra Adhita Dharsono. 2007. Restorasi Resin Komposit dengan Teknik Laminasi. Bandung: FKG Unpad. Available from: http://resources.unpad.ac.id/    Accessed on : April 1, 2009 at  08.22 am.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Hermina M, T2.003. Perbaikan Restorasi Komposit Klas I. Skripsi. USU. Available from :  http://library.usu.ac.id/, Accessed on March 14, 2009. at 11.18 pm.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Kun ismiyatin. Handout Restorasi Resin Komposit. 2001. Surabaya: FKG-unair.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;NN.Available from : http://www.praxis-hc.de/vollker_biodentis_Behandlung.html &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;NN. Available from : http://www.premusa.com/enews/2004_05_compcoreaf.asp&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;NN. Available from : http://www.stonepharm.com/SealAmerica.htm&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Mitchell, David A and Laura Mitchell. 2005. Oxford Handbook of Clinical Dentistry 4th Ed. New York :Oxford University Press&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Nainggolan, Morina. Penggunaan Resin Komposit sebagai Bahan Pasak dan Inti.. Skripsi.2002. Medan: FKG-USU. Available from : http://library.usu.ac.id/, Accessed on April 19, 2009. at 09.18 pm.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Panjaitan, Fransiska Uli Arta.2001. Kebaikan dan Keburukan Polyacid Modified Composite Resin (kompomer) Serta Penggunaannya Sebagai Bahan Tumpatan Gigi. Skripsi. Medan:Fkg-USU. Available from :  http://library.usu.ac.id/, Accessed on April 20, 2009. at 11.18 am.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Silalahi, Dona Ivana. Bahan Restorasi Kompomer.Skripsi.2002. Medan: FKG-USU. Available from : http://library.usu.ac.id/, Accessed on April 19, 2009. at 09.18 pm.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Soncini, Jennifer Ann. et al. The longevity of amalgam versus compomer/composite restorations in posterior primary and permanent teeth: Findings From the New England Children’s Amalgam Trial. J Am Dent Assoc. 2007;138 (6):763-772. Available from: http://jada.ada.org/   Accessed on : April 19, 2009 at  08.50 am.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Studervant JR, Roberson TM, Heymann HO. 2002. Studenvart’s Art &amp; Science of Operative Dentistry 4th Ed. St Luois, Missouri : Mosby, Inc. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Zhi, CHEN. Operative Dentistry 3. University Minnisota School of Dentistry.. Available from : http://202.114.104.243/jpkc/ysysbx/index.html  Accessed on: April,19, 2009 at 08.3 am.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com'&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-6854170100686550927?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/6854170100686550927/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/daftar-pustaka-jurnal-komposit-kompomer.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/6854170100686550927'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/6854170100686550927'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/daftar-pustaka-jurnal-komposit-kompomer.html' title='Daftar Pustaka Jurnal Komposit-Kompomer'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-674744733201537892</id><published>2009-07-17T13:44:00.001+07:00</published><updated>2009-07-17T13:49:05.929+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='iTech'/><title type='text'>Good Design Practices</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt;&lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=en&amp;w=160&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt;   &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;p align="justify"&gt;Your website is where your business resides -- it's like the headquarter of an offline company. Hence, it is important to practise good design principles to makecertain your site gets hold of bent the maximum number of visitors and sells to as many people as possible. Make certain you have clear directions on the navigation of your website. The navigation menu should be uncluttered and concise so that visitors know how to navigate around your website without confusion. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Reduce the number of images on your website. They make your site load very slowly and more often than not they're very unnecessary. If you think any image is essential on your site, be sure you optimize them using image editing programs so that they've a minimum file size. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Keep your text paragraphs at a reasonable length. If a paragraph is too long, you should split it into seperate paragraphs so that the text blocks won't be too big. This is important because a block of text that's overlarge will deter visitors from reading your content. &lt;br /&gt;Make certain your website complies to web standards at www.w3.org and make sure they're cross-browser compatible. If your website looks great in Internet Explorer but breaks horribly in Firefox and Opera, you'll lose out on many prospective visitors. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Avoid using scripting languages on your site unless it's absolutely necessary. Use scripting languages to handle or manipulate data, not to create visual effects on your website. Heavy scripts will loosen up the loading time of your site and even crash some browsers. Also, scripts are not supported across all browsers, so some visitors might miss important information because of that. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Use CSS to style your page content because they save many work by styling all elements on your website in one go. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com'&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;   &lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-674744733201537892?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/674744733201537892/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/good-design-practices.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/674744733201537892'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/674744733201537892'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/good-design-practices.html' title='Good Design Practices'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-3316110277002136724</id><published>2009-07-13T11:52:00.002+07:00</published><updated>2009-07-13T12:04:28.684+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='iTech'/><title type='text'>Generating Revenue With Good Planning</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=en&amp;w=160&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt;  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;For anything to work well, care must be taken to make firm, workable plans to execute it and the same goes for website designs. With a well thought out website design, you will be able to create a site that generates multiple streams of revenue for you. In fact, may websites turn into online wasteland because they are not well planned and do not get a single visitor. Gradually, the webmaster will not be motivated to update it anymore and it turns into wasted cyberspace.&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt; &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The crucial point of planning your site is optimizing it for revenue if you want to gain any income from the site. Divide your site into major blocks, ordered by themes, and start building new pages and subsections in those blocks. For example, you might have a "food" section, an "accomodation" section and an "entertainment" section for a tourism site. You can then write and publish relevant articles in the respective sections to attract a stream of traffic that comes looking for further information.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;When you have a broader, better-defined scope of themes for your website, you can sell space on your pages to people interested in advertising on your page. You can also earn from programs like Google's Adsense and Yahoo! Search Marketing if people surf to those themed pages and click on the ads. For this very reason, the advertisement blocks on your pages need to be relevant to the content, so a themed page fits that criteria perfectly.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;As Internet becomes more widespread, advertising on the Internet will bear more results than on magazines or offline media. Hence, start tapping in on this lucrative stream of profit right away!&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/"&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;   &lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-3316110277002136724?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/3316110277002136724/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/generating-revenue-with-good-planning.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/3316110277002136724'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/3316110277002136724'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/generating-revenue-with-good-planning.html' title='Generating Revenue With Good Planning'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-5110626427690444372</id><published>2009-07-13T10:41:00.005+07:00</published><updated>2009-07-13T11:46:15.941+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='iTech'/><title type='text'>5 Ways to have loyal visitors</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=en&amp;w=160&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Everyone who has a website or web log (blog) certainly they want to have good traffic of their website and then monetize their website, maybe as publisher or review product. A lot of successful websites depend on returning visitors to account for a major part of their traffic. Returning visitors are easier to convert into paying customers because the more often they return to a site, the more trust they have in that site. The credibility issue just melts away. Hence, keep your visitors coming back to your site with the following methods:&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1) Start a forum, chatroom or shoutbox&lt;br /&gt;When you start a forum, chatroom or shoutbox, you are providing your visitors a place to voice their opinions and interact with their peers -- all of them are visitors of your site. As conversations build up, a sense of community will also follow and your visitors will come back to your site almost religiously every day.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;2) Start a web log (blog)&lt;br /&gt;Keep an online journal, or more commonly known as a blog, on your site and keep it updated with latest news about yourself. Human beings are curious creatures and they will keep their eyes glued to the monitor if you post fresh news frequently. You will also build up your credibility as you are proving to them that there is also a real life person behind the website. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;3) Carry out polls or surveys&lt;br /&gt;Polls and surveys are other forms of interaction that you should definitely consider adding to your site. They provide a quick way for visitors to voice their opinions and to get involved in your website. Be sure to publish polls or surveys that are strongly relevant to the target market of your website to keep them interested to find out about the results.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;4) Hold puzzles, quizzes and games&lt;br /&gt;Just imagine how many office workers procrastinate at work every day, and you will be able to gauge how many people will keep visiting your site if you provide a very interesting or addicting way of entertainment. You can also hold competitions to award the high score winner to keep people trying continuously to earn the prize.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;5) Update frequently with fresh content&lt;br /&gt;Update your site frequently with fresh content so that every time your visitors come back, they will have something to read on your site. This is the most widely known and most effective method of attracting returning visitors, but this is also the least carried out one because of the laziness of webmasters. No one will want to browse a site that looks the same over ten years, so keep your site updated with fresh bites!&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;fahry hadi kusuma&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/"&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-5110626427690444372?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/5110626427690444372/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/5-ways-to-make-loyal-visitors.html#comment-form' title='2 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/5110626427690444372'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/5110626427690444372'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/5-ways-to-make-loyal-visitors.html' title='5 Ways to have loyal visitors'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>2</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-5314738740093065661</id><published>2009-07-08T21:14:00.009+07:00</published><updated>2009-07-14T01:01:56.683+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='iTech'/><title type='text'>5 Principles in Website Design</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=en&amp;w=160&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;If you want to make a website or you want to build e-business, that use website as instrument, obey The Principles in Website Design is the best behaviour for you, and your business's future.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Here are five important rules of thumb to observe to make sure your website performs well.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1) Do not use splash pages&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Splash pages are the first pages you see when you arrive at a website. They normally have a very beautiful image with words like "welcome" or "click here to enter". In fact, they are just that -- pretty vases with no real purpose. Do not let your visitors have a reason to click on the "back" button! Give them the value of your site up front without the splash page.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;2) Do not use excessive banner advertisements&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Even the least net savvy people have trained themselves to ignore banner advertisements so you will be wasting valuable website real estate. Instead, provide more valueable content and weave relevant affiliate links into your content, and let your visitors feel that they want to buy instead of being pushed to buy.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;3) Make a simple navigation&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;You have to provide a simple and very straightforward navigation menu so that even a young child will know how to use it. Stay away from complicated Flash based menus or multi-tiered dropdown menus. If your visitors don't know how to navigate, they will leave your site.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;4) Make a clear indication of where the user is&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;When visitors are deeply engrossed in browsing your site, you will want to make sure they know which part of the site they are in at that moment. That way, they will be able to browse relevant information or navigate to any section of the site easily. Don't confuse your visitors because confusion means "abandon ship"!&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;5) don't use audio on your site&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;If your visitor is going to stay a long time at your site, reading your content, you will want to make sure they're not annoyed by some audio looping on and on on your website. If you insist on adding audio, make sure they have some control over it -- volume or muting controls would work fine.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;keep your website in 5 Principles above, When it comes to your website, extra attention should be paid to every minute detail to make sure it performs optimally to serve its purpose.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;center&gt;&lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=en&amp;w=160&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt;&lt;/center&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/"&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-5314738740093065661?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/5314738740093065661/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/5-principles-in-website-design.html#comment-form' title='2 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/5314738740093065661'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/5314738740093065661'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/5-principles-in-website-design.html' title='5 Principles in Website Design'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>2</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-8050197833823444974</id><published>2009-07-06T00:29:00.004+07:00</published><updated>2009-07-14T01:05:12.135+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Law'/><title type='text'>Reksa dana syari’ah</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=id&amp;w=157&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;i&gt;“Orang-orang yang makan (mengambil) riba tidak dapat berdiri&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;i&gt;melainkan seperti berdirinya orang yang kemasukan setan lantaran (tekanan) penyakit gila.Keadaan mereka yang demikian itu, adalah disebabkan mereka berkata (berpendapat), sesungguhnya jual beli itu sama dengan riba, padahal Allah telah menghalalkan jual beli dan mengharamkan riba. Orang-orang yang telah sampai kepadanya larangan dari Tuhannya, lalu terus berhenti (dari mengambil riba), maka baginya apa yang telah diambilnya dahulu (sebelum datang larangan); dan urusannya (terserah) kepada Allah. Orang yang mengulangi (mengambil riba), maka orang itu adalah penghuni-penghuni neraka; mereka kekal di dalamnya. (QS. 2:275)”&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span class='fullpost'&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Reksa Dana adalah wadah yang dipergunakan untuk menghimpun dana dari masyarakat pemodal untuk selanjutnya diinvestasikan kembali dalam portofolio efek oleh Manajer Investasi.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Portofolio Efek adalah kumpulan efek yang dimiliki secara bersama (kolektif) oleh para pemodal dalam Reksa Dana.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Manajer Investasi adalah pihak yang kegiatan usahanya mengelola Portofolio Efek untuk para nasabah atau mengelola portofolio investasi kolektif untuk sekelompok nasabah.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Emiten adalah perusahaan yang menerbitkan Efek untuk ditawarkan kepada publik.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Efek adalah surat berharga, yaitu surat pengakuan utang, surat berharga komersial, saham, obligasi, tanda bukti utang, unit penyertaan kontrak investasi kolektif, kontrak berjangka atas efek, dan setiap derivatif dari efek.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Reksa Dana Syari'ah adalah Reksa Dana yang beroperasi menurut ketentuan dan prinsip Syari'ah Islam, baik dalam bentuk akad antara pemodal sebagai pemilik harta (sahib al-mal/ Rabb al Mal) dengan Manajer Investasi sebagai wakil shahib al-mal, maupun antara Manajer Investasi sebagai wakil shahib al-mal dengan pengguna investasi.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Mudharabah/qirad adalah suatu akad atau sistem di mana seseorang memberikan hartanya kepada orang lain untuk dikelola dengan ketentuan bahwa keuntungan yang diperoleh (dari hasil pengelolaan tersebut) dibagi antara kedua pihak, sesuai dengan syarat-syarat yang disepakati oleh kedua belah pihak, sedangkan kerugian ditanggung oleh shahib al-mal sepanjang tidak ada kelalaian dari mudharib.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Prospektus adalah setiap informasi tertulis sehubungan dengan Penawaran Umum dengan tujuan agar pihak lain membeli Efek.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Bank Kustodian adalah pihak yang kegiatan usahanya adalah memberikan jasa penitipan Efek dan harta lain yang berkaitan dengan Efek serta jasa lain, termasuk menerima deviden, dan hak-hak lain, menyelesaikan transaksi Efek, dan mewakili pemegang rekening yang menjadi nasabahnya.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Hal-hal terkait dengan mekanisme Dan hak- hak para investor Dan lain-lain diatur dengan FATWA DEWAN SYARI'AH NASIONAL NO: 20/DSN-MUI/IV/2001 Tentang PEDOMAN PELAKSANAAN INVESTASI UNTUK REKSA DANA SYARI'AH&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;   &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/"&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-8050197833823444974?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/8050197833823444974/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/reksa-dana-syariah.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/8050197833823444974'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/8050197833823444974'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/reksa-dana-syariah.html' title='Reksa dana syari’ah'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-1704842993816690607</id><published>2009-07-06T00:00:00.004+07:00</published><updated>2009-07-14T01:06:01.484+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Law'/><title type='text'>Asuransi syari’ah dan Reasuransi syari’ah</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=id&amp;w=157&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Indonesia merupakan Negara, dimana mayoritas penduduknya adalah pemeluk agama Islam. Namun demikian, perkembangan produk-produk dengan prinsip syariah baru berkembangn kurang lebih 3-4 tahun yang lalu, salah satunya adalah produk asuransi syariah yang dipelopori oleh PT Asuransi Takaful Indonesia yang berdiri pada tahun 1994.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Setelah itu, &lt;span class='fullpost'&gt;asuransi berbasis syariah mulai digarap oleh beberapa perusahaan dengan pendirian divisi syariah. Dengan terus berkembangnya produk-produk berbasis syariah, maka kami melihat pentingnya untuk memperkenalkan secara khusus produk asuransi syariah.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Sebelum masuk prinsip-prinsip dan mekanisme produk tersebut, banyak kalangan muslim yang beranggapan bahwa berasuransi adalah haram. Apakah benar? Ikut pembahasannya dibawah ini.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Asuransi Tidak Islami?&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Sebagian kalangan Islam beranggapan bahwa asuransi sama dengan menentang qodlo dan qadar atau bertentangan dengan takdir. Pada dasarnya Islam mengakui bahwa kecelakaan, kemalangan dan kematian merupakan takdir Allah. Hal ini tidak dapat ditolak. Hanya saja kita sebagai manusia juga diperintahkan untuk membuat perencanaan untuk menghadapi masa depan. Allah berfirman dalam surat Al Hasyr: 18&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-style: italic;"&gt;“Hai orang-orang yang beriman bertaqwalah kepada Allah dan hendaklah setiap diri memperhatikan apa yang telah diperbuat untuk hari esok (masa depan) dan bertaqwalah kamu kepada Allah. Sesunguhnya Allah Maha mengetahui apa yang engkau kerjakan”.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Jelas sekali dalam ayat ini kita dipertintahkan untuk merencanakan apa yang akan kita perbuat untuk masa depan.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Dalam Al Qur’an, surat Yusuf :43-49, Allah menggambarkan contoh usaha manusia membentuk sistem proteksi menghadapai kemungkinan yang buruk dimasa depan. Secara ringkas, ayat ini bercerita tentang pertanyaan raja mesir tetang mimpinya kepada Nabi Yusuf. Dimana raja Mesir bermimpi melihat tujuh ekor sapi betina yang gemuk dimakan oleh tujuh ekor sapi yang kurus, dan dia juga melihat tujuh tangkai gandum yang hijau berbuah serta tujuh tangkai yang merah mengering tidak berbuah.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Nabi Yusuf dalam hal ini menjawab supaya kamu bertanam tujuh tahun dan dari hasilnya hendaklah disimpan sebagian. Kemudian sesudah itu akan datang tujuh tahun yang amat sulit, yang menghabiskan apa yang kamu simpan untuk menghadapapi masa sulit tesebut, kecuali sedikit dari apa yang disimpan.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Sangat jelas dalam ayat ini kita dianjurkan untuk berusaha menjaga kelangsungan kehidupan dengan meproteksi kemungkinan terjadinya kondisi yang buruk. Dan sangat jelas ayat diatas menyatakan bahwa berasurnasi tidak bertentangan dengan takdir, bahkan Allah menganjurkan adanya upaya-upaya menuju kepada perencanaan masa depan dengan sisitem proteksi yang dikenal dalam mekanisme asuransi.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Jadi, jika sistem proteksi atau asuransi dibenarkan, pertanyaan selanjutnya adalah: apakah asuransi yang kita kenal sekarang (asuransi konvensional) telah memenuhi syarat-syarat lain dalam konsep muamalat secara Islami. Dalam mekanisme asuransi konvensional terutama asuransi jiwa, paling tidak ada tiga hal yang masih diharamkan oleh para ulama, yaitu: adanya unsur gharar (ketidak jelasan dana), unsur maisir (judi/ gambling) dan riba (bunga). Ketiga hal ini akan dijelaskan dalam penjelasaan rinci mengenai &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/asuransi-konvensional-dan-syariah.html"&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;blink&gt;perbedaan antara asuransi konvensional dan syariah.&lt;/blink&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Manfaat Asuransi Syariah&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Asuransi syariah dapat menjadi alterntif pilihan proteksi bagi pemeluk agama Islam yang menginginkan produk yang sesuai dengan hukum Islam. Produk ini juga bisa menjadi pilihan bagi pemeluk agama lain yang memandang konsep syariah adil bagi mereka. Syariah adalah sebuah prinsip atau sistem yang ber-sifat universal dimana dapat dimanfaatkan oleh siapapun juga yang berminat. Demikianlah sekilas ulasan mengenai asuransi syariah. Semoga ulasan ini menambah wawasan dan pengetahuan anda.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;FILOSOFIS ISLAM&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;filosofis ekonomi Islam menurut Adiwarman Karim, terbagi atas empat hal, yaitu : Pertama, prinsip tauhid, yaitu dimana kita meyakini akan kemahaesaan dan kemahakuasaan Allah SWT didalam mengatur segala sesuatunya, termasuk mekanisme perolehan rizki. Sehingga seluruh aktivitas, termasuk ekonomi, harus dilaksanakan sebagai bentuk penghambaan kita kepada Allah SWT secara total.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Yang kedua, prinsip keadilan dan keseimbangan, yang menjadi dasar kesejahteraan manusia. Karena itu, setiap kegiatan ekonomi haruslah senantiasa berada dalam koridor keadilan dan keseimbangan. Kemudian,&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Yang ketiga adalah kebebasan. hal ini berarti bahwa setiap manusia memiliki kebebasan untuk melaksanakan berbagai aktivitas ekonomi sepanjang tidak ada ketentuan Allah SWT yang melarangnya.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Selanjutnya yang keempat adalah pertanggungjwaban. Artinya bahwa manusia harus memikul seluruh tanggung jawab atas segala keputusan yang telah diambilnya&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/"&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-1704842993816690607?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/1704842993816690607/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/asuransi-syariah-dan-reasuransi-syariah.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/1704842993816690607'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/1704842993816690607'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/asuransi-syariah-dan-reasuransi-syariah.html' title='Asuransi syari’ah dan Reasuransi syari’ah'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-3397432762764880379</id><published>2009-07-05T23:51:00.002+07:00</published><updated>2009-07-14T01:07:06.810+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Law'/><title type='text'>Asuransi Konvensional Dan Syariah</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=id&amp;w=157&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Asuransi jiwa syariah dan asuransi jiwa konvensional mempunyai tujuan sama yaitu pengelolaan atau penanggulangan risiko. Perbedaan mendasar antara keduanya adalah cara pengelolaannya pengelolaan risiko asuransi konvensional berupa transfer risiko dari para peserta kepada perusahaan asuransi (risk transfer) sedangkan asuransi jiwa syariah menganut azas tolong menolong dengan membagi risiko diantara peserta asuransi jiwa (risk sharing).&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Selain perbedaan cara pengelolaan risiko, ada perbedaan cara mengelola unsur tabungan produk asuransi. Pengelolaan dana pada asuransi jiwa syariah menganut investasi syariah dan terbebas dari unsur ribawi.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Secara rinci perbedaan antara asuransi jiwa syariah dan asuransi jiwa konvensional dapat dilihat pada uraian berikut :&lt;br /&gt;Kontrak Atau Akad, Kejelasan kontrak atau akad dalam praktik muamalah menjadi prinsip karena akan menentukan sah atau tidaknya secara syariah. Demikian pula dengan kontrak antara peserta dengan perusahaan asuransi. Asuransi konvensional menerapkan kontrak yang dalam syariah disebut kontrak jual beli (tabaduli).&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Dalam kontrak ini harus memenuhi syarat-syarat kontrak jual-beli. Ketidakjelasaan persoalan besarnya premi yang harus dibayarkan karena bergantung terhadap usia peserta yang mana hanya Allah yang tau kapan kita meninggal mengakibatkan asuransi konvensional mengandung apa yang disebut gharar —ketidakjelasaan pada kontrak sehingga mengakibatkan akad pertukaran harta benda dalam asuransi konvensional dalam praktiknya cacat secara hukum&lt;br /&gt;Sehingga dalam asuransi jiwa syariah kontrak yang digunakan bukan kontrak jual beli melainkan kontrak tolong menolong (takafuli). Jadi asuransi jiwa syariah menggunakan apa yang disebut sebagai kontrak tabarru yang dapat diartikan sebagai derma atau sumbangan. Kontrak ini adalah alternatif uang sah dan dibenarkan dalam melepaskan diri dari praktik yang diharamkan pada asuransi konvensional.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Tujuan dari dana tabarru’ ini adalah memberikan dana kebajikan dengan niat ikhlas untuk tujuan saling membantu satu dengan yang lain sesama peserta asuransi syariah apabila diantaranya ada yang terkena musibah. Oleh karenanya dana tabarru’ disimpan dalam satu rekening khsusus, dimana bila terjadi risiko, dana klaim yang diberikan adalah dari rekening dana tabarru’ yang sudah diniatkan oleh semua peserta untuk kepentingan tolong menolong.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Kontrak Al-Mudharabah&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Penjelasan di atas, mengenai kontrak tabarru’ merupakan hibah yang dialokasikan bila terjadi musibah. Sedangkan unsur di dalam asuransi jiwa bisa juga berupa tabungan. Dalam asuransi jiwa syariah, tabungan atau investasi harus memenuhi syariah.&lt;br /&gt;Dalam hal ini, pola investasi bagi hasil adalah cirinya dimana perusahaan asuransi hanyalah pengelola dana yang terkumpul dari para peserta. Secara teknis, al-mudharabah adalah akad kerja sama usaha antara dua pihak dimana pihak pertama menyediakan seluruh (100 persen) modal, sedangkan pihak lainnya menjadi pengelola.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Keuntungan usaha secara mudharabah dibagi menurut kesepakatan yang dituangkan dalam kontrak, sedangkan apabila rugi, ditanggung oleh pemilik modal selama kerugian tersebut bukan akibat kelalaian di pengelola. Seandainya kerugian itu diakibatkan karena kecurangan atau kelalian si pengelola, maka pengelola harus bertanggung jawab atas kerugian tersebut.&lt;br /&gt;Kontrak bagi hasil disepkati didepan sehingga bila terjadi keuntungan maka pembagiannya akan mengikuti kontrak bagi hasil tersebut. Misalkan kontrak bagi hasilnya adalah 60:40, dimana peserta mendapatkan 60 persen dari keuntungan sedang perusahaan asuransi mendapat 40 persen dari keuntungan.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Dalam kaitannya dengan investasi, yang merupakan salah satu unsur dalam premi asuransi, harus memenuhi syariah Islam dimana tidak mengenal apa yang biasa disebut riba. Semua asuransi konvensional menginvestasikan dananya dengan mekanisme bunga.&lt;br /&gt;Dengan demikian asuransi konvensional susah untuk menghindari riba. Sedangkan asuransi syariah daolam berinvestasi harus menyimpan dananya ke berbagai investasi berdasarkan syariah Islam dengan sistem al-mudharabah.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Dana Hangus&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Pada asuransi konvensional dikenal dana hangus, dimana peserta tidak dapat melanjutkan pembayaran premi dan ingin mengundurkan diri sebelum masa jatuh tempo. Begitu pula dengan asuransi jiwa konvensional non-saving (tidak mengandung unsur tabungan) atau asuransi kerugian, jika habis msa kontrak dan tidak terjadi klaim, maka premi asuransi yang sudah dibayarkan hangus atau menjadi keuntungan perusahaan asuransi.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Dalam konsep asuransi syariah, mekanismenya tidak mengenal dana hangus. Peserta yang baru masuk sekalipun karena satu dan lain hal ingin mengundurkan diri, maka dana atau premi yang sebelumnya sudah dibayarkan dapat diambil kembali kecuali sebagian kecil saja yang sudah diniatkan untuk dana tabarru’ yang tidak dapat diambil.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Begitu pula dengan asuransi syariah umum, jika habis masa kontrak dan tidak terjadi klaim, maka pihak perusahaan mengembalikan sebagian dari premi tersebut dengan pola bagi hasil, misalkan 60:40 atau 70:30 sesuai dengan kesepakatan kontrak di muka. Dalam hal ini maka sangat mungkin premi yang dibayarkan di awal tahun dapat diambil kembali dan jumlahnya sangat bergantung dengan tingkat investasi pada tahun tersebut.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/"&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-3397432762764880379?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/3397432762764880379/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/asuransi-konvensional-dan-syariah.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/3397432762764880379'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/3397432762764880379'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/asuransi-konvensional-dan-syariah.html' title='Asuransi Konvensional Dan Syariah'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-8958691176829667552</id><published>2009-07-05T23:41:00.005+07:00</published><updated>2009-07-14T01:08:03.776+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Law'/><title type='text'>Bank syari’ah</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=id&amp;w=157&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Dengan diterbitkannya UU Perbankan Syariah, maka kewenangan absolut peradilan agama dalam memeriksa dan mengadili serta menyelesaikan perkara yang berkaitan dengan ekonomi syariah, khususnya sengketa perbankan syariah makin kuat, karena dalam Pasal 55 ayat (1) UU No. 21 Tahun 2008 tentang Perbankan Syariah ditentukan bahwa apabila terjadi sengketa Perbankan Syariah, maka yang berwewenang mengadili adalah pengadilan dalam lingkup peradilan agama. Pasal tersebut, sejalan dengan ketentuan Pasal 49 Undang-Undang No. 3 Tahun 2006 tentang Peradilan Agama. Dalam pasal tersebut ditentukan bahwa salah kewenangan absolut peradilan agama adalah memeriksa dan mengadili serta menyelesaikan sengketa ekonomi syariah.&lt;span class='fullpost'&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Sebagai konsekuensi logis dari ketentuan tersebut, maka aparat peradilan agama, khususnya para hakim dituntut untuk terus meningkatkan pengetahuan dan kemampuan mereka dalam menangani perkara-perkara yang berkaitan dengan perbankan syariah.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Dalam rangka meningkatkan pengetahuan dan kemampuan serta keterampilan para hakim peradilan agama dalam memeriksa dan mengadili serta menyelesaikan sengketa ekonomi syariah, Mahkamah Agung RI telah menerbitkan Perma No. 02 Tahun 2008 tentang Kompilasi Hukum Ekonomi Syari’ah. Kompilasi tersebut, merupakan pedoman bagi para hakim di lingkungan peradilan agama dalam memeriksa, mengadili dan menyelesaikan perkara yang berkaitan dengan ekonomi syari’ah agar dapat memberikan putusan yang adil dan benar.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/"&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-8958691176829667552?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/8958691176829667552/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/bank-syariah.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/8958691176829667552'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/8958691176829667552'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/bank-syariah.html' title='Bank syari’ah'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-7485623524270426503</id><published>2009-07-05T20:22:00.004+07:00</published><updated>2009-07-14T01:09:40.057+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Law'/><title type='text'>Arti Penting Filsafat Hukum bagi Penerapan dan Pembentukan Hukum</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=id&amp;w=157&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Seperti telah dikemukakan dalam kuliah umum Prof. Peter Mahmud Marzuki tentang &lt;a style="color: rgb(0, 0, 153);" href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/tempat-filsafat-hukum-dalam-studi-hukum.html"&gt;Tempat Filsafat Hukum dalam Studi Ilmu Hukum &lt;/a&gt;maka kali ini akan kami sajikan paparan beliau tentang Arti Penting Filsafat Hukum bagi Penerapan dan Pembentukan Hukum.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Sebagaimana telah dikemukakan pada bagian pertama Bab ini bahwa filsafat hukum sangat berguna bagi mereka yang bergerak di dunia praktis sehari-hari dan penyusun naskah akademis Rancangan Undang-undang. Masalah sehari-hari adalah masalah penerapan hukum baik oleh eksekutif, hakim, maupun kuasa para fihak dalam bersengketa atau dalam melakukan hubungan hukum.  Akan tetapi dalam masalah sehari-hari juga dimungkinkan adanya pembentukan hukum (rechtsconstructie) oleh hakim dalam kerangka penemuan hukum (rechtsvinding). Sedangkan penyusun naskah akademis suatu Rancangan Undang-undang biasanya adalah kalangan akadimisi yang bekerja sama dengan departemen atau instansi yang mengajukan RUU tersebut.&lt;span class='fullpost'&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Sebenarnya baik penerapan hukum termasuk pembentukan hukum oleh hakim maupun penyusunan naskah akademis RUU merupakan konkritisasi tujuan hukum yang merupakan sesuatu yang ideal. Dalam Bab III buku saya Pengantar Ilmu Hukum, saya menyatakan bahwa damai sejahtera (peace) merupakan tujuan hukum. Saya kemukakan damai sejahtera sebagai tujuan hukum karena saya berpangkal pada kenyataan adanya perbedaan dalam kehidupan masyarakat. Perbedaan itu dapat bersifat materiil maupun immateriil.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Dalam suatu masyarakat sekecil apapun dan dalam keadaan berlimpah sekalipun, masih saja terdapat perbedaan dan perbedaan itu bukan tidak mungkin mengarah kepada perselisihan. Hanya saja perbedaan itu dikelola sedemikian rupa sehingga harmoni tetap dijaga dan perselisihan diselesaikan dengan mempertimbangkan keadaan masing-masing fihak. Sebagaimana dalam paduan suara terdapat suara sopran, alto, tenor, bariton, dan bas yang walaupun berbeda-beda apabila diaransir secara tepat akan menjadi suatu bunyi yang indah, demikian juga perbedaan-perbedaan dalam masyarakat tidak mungkin dihilangkan, melainkan diatata sedemikian rupa sehingga menjadi suatu kesatuan yang elok.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Hal itu berbeda dengan situasi yang tertib (order). Tertib mempunyai makna tidak kacau. Situasi semacam itu dapat dicapai meskipun di dalamnya terdapat penindasan oleh yang kuat terhadap yang lemah atau adanya ketidakseimbangan perlindungan. Dalam situasi yang tertib mungkin secara agregat masyarakat itu makmur tetapi kemakmuran itu tidak dinikmati secara seimbang oleh setiap individu yang menjadi warga masyarakat itu. Di dalam kehidupan bermasyarakat semacam itu mungkin sekali terdapat kesenjangan. Sebaliknya, dalam situasi damai sejahtera, perbedaan selalu ada tetapi tidak sampai menimbulkan kesenjangan. Demikian juga, dalam suasana yang tertib, tidak dimungkinkan adanya perbedaan pendapat karena hal itu akan mengganggu ketertiban. Dalam situasi damai sejahtera, perbedaan pendapat diarahkan kepada pencapaian kualitas kehidupan yang lebih tinggi bukan dipadamkan. Oleh karena itulah dalam suatu masyarakat yang membutuhkan ketertiban, pemerintah akan bersikap represif dan otoriter.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Hukum harus dapat menciptakan damai sejahtera, bukan ketertiban. Damai sejahtera inilah yang merupakan tujuan hukum. Dalam situasi damai sejahtera hukum melindungi kepentingan-kepentingan manusia baik secara materiil maupun immateriil dari perbuatan-perbuatan yang merugikan. Mengenai kepentingan kepentingan yang ada dalam masyarakat ini, Roscoe Pound membedakan antara kepentingan pribadi, kepentingan publik, dan kepentingan sosial. Kepentingan pribadi berupa keinginan seseorang mengenai hal hal yang bersifat pribadi, misalnya perkawinan. Kepentingan publik bersangkut paut dengan kehidupan kenegaraan, misalnya hak pilih dalam pemilihan umum. Sedangkan kepentingan sosial menyangkut kehidupan sosial, misalnya pemeliharaan moral.  Berdasarkan apa yang dikemukakan oleh Roscoe Pound ini terlihat bahwa dalam menentukan kepentingan yang mana yang harus dilindungi oleh hukum, pertimbangan subjektif memagang peranan penting dengan mengingat faktor-faktor politik, ekonomi, sosial, dan agama. Oleh karena itulah dapat difahami kalau L.J. van Apeldoorn menyatakan bahwa usulan mengenai daftar kepentingan yang dilindungi tidak lain dari pada usulan yang timbul dari agenda politik.  Tidak dapat disangkal bahwa bahwa penilaian subjektif mewarnai pertimbangan kepentingan apa yang harus diprioritaskan dan mana yang harus dikorbankan. Dalam memutuskan hal itu tidak terdapat suatu ukuran yang bersifat objektif.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Meskipun tidak mungkin diperoleh ukuran yang benar-benar objektif artinya tidak terdapat subjektivitas sama sekali dalam memutuskan kepentingan mana yang diprioritaskan, setidak-tidaknya harus diperoleh ukuran yang mendekati objektivitas. Dalam hal inilah filsafat hukum dapat menjadi pedoman.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Untuk memperoleh gambaran mengenai hal itu perlu dikemukakan contoh. Misalnya, suatu aturan hukum menetapkan bahwa setiap penggunaan dana yang berasal dari Anggaran Pendapatan Belanja Daerah harus disetujui oleh Bupati atau Walikota; apabila tanpa persetujuan tersebut, tindakan itu merupakan tindakan korupsi. Pada hari Sabtu, saat tidak ada kantor, terjadi suatu gempa bumi; dalam hal demikian, aparat harus bertindak sigap untuk menolong korban dengan mengeluarkan dana, namun terdapat hambatan yuridis sebab apabila hal itu dilakukan, tindakan itu merupakan tindak korupsi. Dalam menghadapi situasi semacam itu filsafat hukum memberikan pedoman bahwa hukum dibuat untuk masyarakat bukan untuk hukum itu belaka. Oleh karena itulah dengan menggunakan konsep freiss ermessen atau discretionary power aparat tidak perlu menunggu persetujuan Bupati atau Walikota dalam mencairkan anggaran untuk menolong korban gempa bumi itu. Dalam hal demikian yang dipersoalkan bukan menurut hukum (rechtmatig) atau melanggar hukum (onrechtmatig), melainkan doelmatig artinya adakah tujuan yang lebih tinggi dari pada sekadar formalitas. Dalam kasus itu, dilihat dari sudut azas legalitas, suatu tindakan mencairkan dana APBD tanpa persetujuan Bupati atau Walikota merupakan suatu tindakan korupsi; akan tetapi azas legalitas tidak boleh mengalahkan tujuan yang secara substansial lebih tinggi, yaitu menyelamatkan nyawa manusia. Di sinilah arti penting filsafat hukum.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Contoh lain yang menunjukkan arti penting filsafat hukum dalam praktik sehari-hari adalah suatu kasus yang unik Riggs v Palmer yang biasanya disebut kasus Elmer. Di dalam kasus itu Elmer membunuh kakeknya dengan cara meracuni orang tua itu karena ia curiga bahwa sang kakek akan mengubah testamen yang telah dibuatnya karena kakek tersebut kawin lagi. Di dalam testamen tersebut dinyatakan bahwa Elmer mewarisi sejumlah harta. Elmer kemudian dinyatakan bersalah dan dipidana penjara untuk jangka waktu tertentu. Anak-anak perempuan sang kakek yang masih hidup menggugat pengurus testamen atas dasar Elmer tidak layak untuk mewarisi harta ayah mereka karena membunuh si pembuat testamen. Di negara bagian New York tidak terdapat ketentuan seperti pasal 912 Burgerlijk Wetboek Indonesia yang berbunyi:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-style: italic; color: rgb(0, 0, 153);"&gt;Orang yang dijatuhi hukuman karena telah membunuh pewaris, orang yang telah menggelapkan, memusnahkan atau memalsukan surat wasiat pewaris, atau orang yang dengan paksaan atau kekerasan telah menghalangi pewaris untuk mencabut atau mengubah surat wasiatnya, serta istri atau suaminya dan anak-anaknya, tidak boleh menikmati suatu keuntungan pun dari wasiat itu.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Dengan tidak adanya ketentuan semacam itu di negara bagian New York, dapat saja pengadilan itu memutuskan Elmer berhak atas harta yang tertuang di dalam surat wasiat itu. Apabila hal itu yang terjadi, berlakulah pandangan bahwa apabila tidak dilarang berarti dibolehkan. Namun, pengadilan New York berdasarkan suara mayoritas memutuskan bahwa Elmer tidak boleh menikmati harta yang diwasiatkan dalam testamen itu. Putusan pada kasus itu mencerminkan bahwa pengadilan New York mengacu kepada nilai yang lebih tinggi dari sekadar mengacu kepada ada tidaknya ketentuan perundang-undangan. Dalam hal ini pengadilan itu berpegang kepada prinsip bahwa seseorang tidak boleh mendapat keuntungan dari kejahatannya.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Dari putusan itu dapat diperoleh suatu pemikiran bahwa apabila sesuatu tidak dilarang bukan berarti bahwa sesuatu itu dibolehkan. Pengadilan New York telah memberikan bingkai untuk sesuatu yang tidak boleh dilakukan. Bingkai itu bukan berupa aturan hukum, melainkan berupa suatu nilai kepatutan. Nilai inilah yang dijadikan landasan pengadilan New York untuk melarang pembunuh pemberi testamen menikmati isi testamen yang menguntungkan pembunuh.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Suatu kasus sejenis yang perlu juga dikemukakan sebagai contoh adalah kasus Henningsen v Bloomfield di negara bagian New Jersey. Dalam kasus itu, Henningsen membeli sebuah mobil berdasarkan suatu kontrak yang mengandung klausula bahwa tanggung gugat  produsen hanya sebatas memperbaiki bagian-bagian yang cacat dan selebihnya produsen tidak bertanggung gugat. Akan tetapi kemudian terjadi kecelakaan dan ia menggugat produsen untuk minta biaya pengobatan meskipun ia tahu dalil untuk mengajukan gugatan itu tidak terdapat dalam klausula kontrak yang telah ia sepakati. Ternyata, pengadilan New Jersey mengabulkan gugatan Henningsen dan berpendapat bahwa berdasarkan kepatutan, produsen mobil harus bertanggung gugat atas cacat mobil yang menyebabkan terjadinya kecelakaan.  Dari putusan itu, sekali lagi menunjukkan bahwa bukan ketentuan-ketentuan yang secara formal tertuang di dalam kontrak yang dijadikan acuan oleh pengadilan, melainkan kepatutan. Dalam hal inipun filsafat hukum memberi pedoman, yaitu dalam hubungan antara seorang individu dengan individu lainnya.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Dalam rangka penyusunan naskah akademis RUU pun juga tidak dapat dilepaskan dari tujuan hukum, yaitu damai sejahtera. Naskah akademis tersebut harus dapat menjabarkan tujuan itu sampai kepada ketentuan-ketentuan yang operasional. Konsiderans “Menimbang” dalam suatu undang-undang sebenarnya merupakan suatu gagasan yang bersifat konkrit perlunya dibuat undang-undang itu. Gagasan dasar biasanya yang diambil dari naskah akademis biasanya dimuat dalam Penjelasan Umum.&lt;br /&gt;Penjelasan Umum suatu undang-undang berisi pemikiran yang bersifat filosofis. Sebagai contoh dikemukakan petikan Penjelasan Umum Undang-undang Nomor 25 tahun 2007 tentang Penanaman Modal sebagai berikut:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-style: italic; color: rgb(0, 0, 153);"&gt;... Penanaman modal harus menjadi bagian dari penyelenggaraan perekonomian nasional dan ditempatkan sebagai upaya untuk meningkatkan pertumbuhan ekonomi nasional, menciptakan lapangan kerja, meningkatkan pembangunan ekonomi berkelanjutan, meningkatkan kapasitas dan kemampuan teknologi nasional, mendorong pembangunan ekonomi kerakyatan, serta mewujudkan kesejahteraan masyarakat dalam suatu sistem perekonomian yang berdaya saing.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Tujuan penyelenggaraan penanaman modal hanya dapat tercapai apabila faktor penunjang yang menghambat iklim penanaman modal dapat diatasi, antara lain melalui perbaikan koordinasi antarinstansi Pemerintah Pusat dan daerah, penciptaan birokrasi yang efisien, kepastian hukum di bidang penanaman modal, biaya ekonomi yang berdaya saing tinggi, serta iklim usaha yang kondusif di bidang ketenagakerjaan dan keamanan berusaha ...&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/"&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-7485623524270426503?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/7485623524270426503/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/arti-penting-filsafat-hukum-bagi.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/7485623524270426503'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/7485623524270426503'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/arti-penting-filsafat-hukum-bagi.html' title='Arti Penting Filsafat Hukum bagi Penerapan dan Pembentukan Hukum'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-7771771136252408595</id><published>2009-07-05T19:56:00.004+07:00</published><updated>2009-07-14T01:11:14.931+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Law'/><title type='text'>Tempat Filsafat Hukum dalam Studi Hukum</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=id&amp;w=157&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Menyambung Artikel yang sebelumnya yaitu &lt;a style="color: rgb(0, 0, 153);" href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/mengapa-filsafat-hukum-tidak-menarik.html"&gt;&lt;blink&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;i&gt;"Mengapa Filsafat Hukum Tidak Menarik?"&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/blink&gt;&lt;/a&gt;maka berikut akan dipaparkan mengenai tempat filsafat hukum dalam studi ilmu hukum oleh Prof. Peter Mahmud Marzuki.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Pertanyaan mendasar yang perlu dikemukakan dalam perbincangan filsafat hukum adalah apakah mata kuliah itu bagian dari filsafat atau bagian dari ilmu hukum. Pertanyaan semacam itu sangat relevan dalam menentukan tempat diajarkannya filsafat hukum. Kalau filsafat hukum merupakan bagian dari filsafat, tempat diajarkannya mata kuliah itu berada pada fakultas filsafat atau kalau suatu universitas tidak memiliki fakultas filsafat, pengajarnya harus sarjana filsafat. Sebaliknya, apabila bagian dari ilmu hukum, &lt;span class="fullpost"&gt; tempat mata kuliah itu berada di fakultas hukum dan pengajarnya pun harus sarjana hukum. Selama ini dan secara turun-temurun, filsafat hukum memang berada di fakultas hukum dan pengajarnya pun sarjana hukum.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Para penulis Eropa kontinental pada umumnya berpendapat bahwa filsafat hukum merupakan bagian dari filsafat. Yang pertama kali yang perlu diajukan dalam perbincangan ini adalah Gustav Radbruch. Menurut Gustav Radbruch, filsafat hukum adalah bagian dari filsafat. Oleh karena itulah perlu dikemukakan pandangan filsafat secara umum.  Hal yang sama dikemukakan oleh D.H.M. Meuwissen: &lt;span style="font-style: italic; color: rgb(0, 0, 153);"&gt;“... karena filsafat hukum merupakan bagian dari filsafat umum dan karena setiap paparan mengenai filsafat berpangkal dari titik anjak tertentu. Dengan demikian, pertama kali kita harus memahami filsafat.”  Begitu pula dua penulis dari Universitas Antwerpen, Belgia, Jan Gijssels dan Mark van Hocke menyatakan bahwa filsafat hukum merupakan filsafat umum yang diterapkan pada hukum atau gejala hukum.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Dalam memulai pandangannya, Radbruch mengemukakan bahwa pada setiap apa yang ada atau jumpaan terdapat realita dan nilai yang campur aduk tidak dipisahkan. Manusia dan benda dipengaruhi oleh nilai dalam arti berharga atau tidak berharga. Akan tetapi berharga tidaknya seseorang atau benda bukan orang itu sendiri yang menilai dan juga bukan substansi barang itu sendiri. Kebangsawanan seseorang dapat dilihat dari auranya...&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Selanjutnya ia mengemukakan bahwa dalam menghadapi apa yang ada atau jumpaan, pikiran manusia bekerja apakah menghindar dari jumpaan itu atau menghadapinya. Dalam hal inilah dibedakan antara realita dan nilai. Sikap manusia terhadap jumpaan itu adalah tidak memberikan penilaian atas jumpaan itu atau menilainya.  Dengan perkataan lain, begitu seseorang menghadapi jumpaan, ia akan bersikap membiarkan jumpaan itu apa adanya artinya tidak memberi nilai baik atau buruk, benar atau salah terhadap jumpaan itu atau memberikan penilaian atas jumpaan itu. Untuk menjelaskan uraian Radbruch ini, perlu kiranya diberikan contoh. Sebagai contoh, di  kota Surabaya terdapat komplek pelacuran terkenal yang dahulu dikenal sebagai Njarak karena terletak di Jalan Jarak yang akhir-akhir ini lebih terkenal sebagai Dolly; seseorang yang tidak memberikan penilaian atas jumpaan itu hanya menyatakan memang ada komplek tersebut di kota Surabaya; akan tetapi sebaliknya, seseorang dapat menyatakan bahwa adanya komplek semacam itu merupakan suatu hal yang buruk bagi citra Surabaya sebagai Kota Pahlawan; atau mungkin orang yang lain memberikan penilaian bahwa lokalisasai pelacur merupakan hal yang baik karena dengan lokalisasai itu tidak membiarkan para pelacur berkeliaran di mana-mana dan juga akan meningkatkan Pendapatan Asli Daerah. Bagi yang tidak memberikan penilaian, ia hanya menyatakan memang adanya begitu; sebaliknya, bagi yang memberikan penilaian atas suatu jumpaan, ia akan berpikir seharusnya dilakukan hal seperti ini atau seperti itu. Apabila dikaitkan dengan contoh yang telah dikemukakan, seseorang yang tidak memberi penilaian akan bersikap netral terhadap adanya komplek lokalisasai Dolly; sedangkan, yang memandang bahwa lokalisasi itu membuat buruk citra Surabaya sebagai Kota Pahlawan akan berpikir seharusnya komplek itu ditutup; lain lagi bagi yang menilai baik komplek itu, ia akan berpikir seharusnya fasilitas yang ada ditambah bahkan dibuatkan aturan hukumnya untuk meningkatkan fasilitas yang ada.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Sebenarnya, dengan memulai uraian semacam itu tanpa adanya contoh yang jelas seperti yang dikemukakan, studi filsafat hukum menjadi tidak menarik. Namun, apa yang dikemukakan oleh Radbruch ini merupakan dasar pembedaan antara ilmu dalam arti science dan filsafat.  Filsafat merupakan studi yang memberikan penilaian (value-evaluating). Oleh karena itulah Radbruch memang perlu mengemukakan hal itu. Hanya saja, Radbruch tidak memberikan contoh sehingga membuat uraiannya sulit difahami.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Berbeda dengan Radbruch, Meuwissen mengawali tulisannya dengan pengertian filsafat. Ia menyatakan:&lt;br /&gt; &lt;span style="font-style: italic; color: rgb(0, 0, 153);"&gt;“Menurut pendapat kami, filsafat adalah pemberian dasar dan perenungan yang radikal. Filsafat terutama merefleksikan tentang sesuatu yang ada, yaitu sesuatu “yang ada” pada umumnya. Filsafat dimulai dengan keheranan: “Mengapa hal itu seperti ini dan bukan yang lain?” Dengan demikian, filsafat adalah suatu refleksi, kegiatan berpikir dan karena itulah bersifat rasional. Hal ini berarti bahwa makna filsafat adalah memberikan argumentasi dan juga kontra argumentasi atau bantahan atas apa yang dikemukakan.”&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Hal senada tentang pengertian filsafat dikemukakan oleh Jan Gijssels dan Mark van Hoecke yang menyatakan: filsafat membicarakan manusia dan apa yang ada dari level abstraksi yang tinggi dan karena itulah mempunyai ruang lingkup yang luas.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Radbruch, Meuwissen, dan dua ahli hukum Belgia mengemukakan pengertian filsafat dalam rangka memberi pengertian kepada filsafat hukum mengingat mereka berpendapat bahwa filsafat hukum merupakan bagian dari filsafat. Hal itu berarti apa yang terdapat dalam filsafat, berlaku bagi filsafat hukum.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Apakah memang benar demikian? Untuk mengetahui apakah sebenarnya filsafat itu seyogyanya dihadirkan pandangan sarjana filsafat. Seorang sarjanaj filsafat, Robert C. Solomon menulis:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-style: italic; color: rgb(0, 0, 153);"&gt;“Philosophy is not like any other academic subject; rather, it is a critical approach to all subjects. Philosophy is a style of life, a life of ideas or the life of reason, which a person like Socrates lives all his life, which many of us live only a few hours a week. It is thinking about everything and anything. But mainly, it is living thoughtfully.”&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Ia melanjutkan bahwa filsafat bukan sebagaimana anggapan orang pada umumnya, yaitu orang harus berada di awan-awan dan tidak menyentuh realitas sehari-hari. Sebaliknya, filsafat justru menyingkap tabir yang gelap, memperluas pandangan dan pengetahuan kita tentang dunia, memungkinkan kita untuk menyingkirkan prasangka dan kebiasaan-kebiasaan yang merugikan yang telah kita anut sejak kita masih muda atau sejak pengetahuan kita belum mencukupi.  Menurut Solomon, filsafat memberikan kepada kita kekuatan intelektual untuk mempertahankan apa yang kita lakukan dan apa yang kita percaya terhadap orang lain. Dengan berfilsafat, menjadi jelaslah batas-batas sekaligus alasan pembenar bagi tindakan kita dan apa yang kita percaya. Akibatnya, filsafat memberikan kekuatan intelektual untuk memahami dan memberikan toleransi dan bahkan bersimpati kepada pandangan yang berbeda dengan pandangan kita.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Dari uraian Robert C. Solomon itu dapat dikemukakan bahwa kegunaan filsafat adalah membimbing pengambilan keputusan dan memahami perbedaan berpikir. Pengambilan keputusan merujuk kepada seseorang sebagai individu sedangkan memahami perbedaan berpikir merujuk kepada seseorang sebagai anggota masyarakat yang hidup berdampingan dengan seseorang individu yang lain. Namun demikian, pengambilan keputusan dapat berdampak bagi masyarakat. Sebaliknya, dengan memahami perbedaan berpikir memperkaya orang tersebut dengan pengetahuan yang selama ini tidak ia ketahui.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Setiap orang yang sudah dapat berpikir, setiap saat dihadapkan kepada berbagai alternatif yang harus dipilh. Tidak memilih pun sudah merupakan pilihan. Hidup memang masalah pilihan. Sejak bangun tidur pun seseorang sudah harus melakukan pengambilan keputusan untuk menjatuhkan pilihan atas alternatif-alternatif yang dihadapkan kepadanya.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Tidak ada pilihan yang mudah, bahkan untuk hal-hal yang kecil sekalipun. Terkadang pilihan itu terlihat mudah apabila yang dihadapkan kepada seseorang alternatif-alternatif yang kontras. Sebagai contoh, seorang pria tampan, mempunyai gelar kesarjanaan dan pandai menginginkan seorang wanita yang cantik tetapi paling tinggi lulusan SMA karena ia tidak ingin beradu argumentasi dalam hidup rumah tangga atau dikalahkan oleh isterinya. Pada saat yang bersamaan, tiga orang gadis jatuh hati kepada sarjana tampan yang masih lajang itu; yang pertama, seorang sarjana dengan wajah yang biasa-biasa saja tetapi cerdas dan bekerja sebagai dosen; yang kedua, lulusan SMA berwajah cantik, tidak bekerja dan anak orang kaya; yang ketiga, lulusan Diploma 3 berwajah cantik dan bekerja sebagai Public Relation suatu perusahaan. Oleh karena alternatif-alternatif itu memang kontras dan hanya satu orang yang mewakili apa yang diidamkannya, sudah dapat diduga bahwa sarjana tampan yang masih lajang itu mengambil keputusan untuk mengawini lulusan SMA berwajah cantik yang tidak bekerja dan anak orang kaya itu. Kenyataannya memang demikian. Namun apa hendak dikata. Ternyata, ketika rumah tangga mereka baru berlangsung dua tahun, sudah terjadi percekcokan yang tidak dapat didamaikan yang berakhir dengan perceraian.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Memang, dalam mengambil keputusan untuk menjatuhkan pilihan atas alternatif-alternatif yang dihadapkan kepadanya, seseorang harus berani menanggung konsekuensinya. Dalam hal inilah dibutuhkan filsafat. Dari contoh sarjana tampan yang mengawini lulusan SMA berwajah cantik yang tidak bekerja dan anak orang kaya itu dapat dikemukakan bahwa pandangan hidup yang dianut oleh sarjana itu adalah seorang isteri harus submissive atau tunduk sepenuhnya kepada suami yang kira-kira dalam budaya Jawa tradisional, isteri adalah tiang wingking.  Filsafat yang dianut oleh sarjana tampan itu adalah filsafat patriarkis yaitu laki-laki berkuasa atas wanita dalam berbagai lembaga. Barangkali sarjana tampan yang cerdas itu masih terngiang-ngiang bait terakhir lirik lagu Sabda Alam-nya Ismail Marzuki yang berbunyi: “&lt;span style="font-style: italic; color: rgb(0, 0, 153);"&gt;Wanita dijajah pria sejak dulu; dijadikan perhiasan sangkar madu ...”.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Tidak dapat disangkal bahwa lingkungan budaya seseorang ikut menentukan filsafat yang dianut seseorang. Apalagi kalau budaya itu bersifat eksklusif dan anggota-anggota komunitas budaya itu merasa aman terhadap pandangan hidup yang bersifat turun-temurun, hal itu akan membuat seseorang dalam pengambilan keputusan mencontoh dari yang telah ada. Akan tetapi apabila mereka menerima sentuhan-sentuhan budaya atau pandangan hidup lain, hal itu akan membuat anggota-anggota komunitas itu untuk memilih pandangan hidup mana yang digunakan dalam menjatuhkan pilihan atas alternatif-alternatif yang dihadapkan kepadanya. Sebagai contoh, seseorang baru saja mendapatkan sejumlah uang tertentu yang harus dibayarkan paling lambat keesokan harinya sebagai dana sumbangan masyarakat pada suatu universitas tertentu karena anaknya diterima di universitas tersebut. Orang itu tidak cukup mampu untuk membayar dana sumbangan masyarakat pada universitas tersebut. Ia berusaha sedemikian rupa dengan cara yang tidak melanggar hukum maupun tata pergaulan dan ia berhasil. Akan tetapi pada hari itu juga ia didatangi temannya yang butuh uang sebesar yang baru saja diterimanya karena isteri teman itu harus mengalami operasi tetapi biayanya kurang sehingga perlu minta tambahan sebesar sumbangan masyarakat tersebut. Apa yang harus dilakukan oleh orang itu? Kedua alternatif itu terlihat kontras. Sebenarnya sangat mudah bagi orang itu untuk menjatuhkan pilihan, yaitu menolak permintaan temannya karena dana itu dipakai untuk membayar dana sumbangan masyarakat bagi anaknya yang akan masuk ke perguruan tinggi. Apalagi komunitas budayanya membenarkan kalau ia lebih mendahulukan kepentingan anaknya dari pada memenuhi permintaan temannya dengan akibat anaknya tidak dapat masuk universitas ternama itu. Akan tetapi orang itu ternyata mendapat sentuhan budaya lain, yaitu sebelum mengambil keputusan, baik untuk hal-hal yang kecil dan lebih-lebih untuk hal-hal yang besar, ia berdoa menurut agama yang dianutnya. Setelah ia berdoa, ia merasa adanya damai sejahtera kalau ia memenuhi permintaan temannya. Sudah barang tentu pengambilan keputusan semacam itu bukan tanpa konsekuensi. Setelah temannya pulang dan mengucap terima kasih, tak ayal lagi, keluarganya uring-uringan. Si anak ngambek dan sang isteri mengata-ngatainya sebagai orang bodoh, kena sirep teman, tidak sayang anak, dll. Ia sendiri menangis tersedu-sedu tetapi tidak menyesal atas keputusannya. Suasana mencekam keluarga ini berlangsung selama kurang lebih dua bulan. Pada bulan ketiga si anak mendapat kepastian bahwa ia mendapat beasiswa dari sebuah yayasan di Belanda untuk belajar di fakultas teknik sipil seperti yang ia inginkan tetapi kali ini di universitas di Belanda.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Yang juga menentukan pengambilan keputusan adalah nilai yang lebih tinggi. Sekali lagi, dalam pengambilan keputusan inipun seseorang harus berani menanggung konsekuensinya. Sebagai contoh adalah seorang bintara jaga di rumah monyet pada markas tentara dilarang meninggalkan rumah monyet dalam suatu radius tertentu dan apabila ia melanggar karena alasan apapun ia dikenai hukuman. Tiba-tiba agak jauh dari tempat ia jaga itu ada seorang anak tertabrak mobil, terjatuh tidak dapat bangun dan penabraknya lari. Ia mengangkat anak itu dan menaikkan ke motornya dan melarikan anak itu ke rumah sakit. Tentu saja apa yang dilakukan itu merupakan suatu pelanggaran displin. Tidak diragukan lagi, iapun harus menjalani hukuman disiplin. Namun ia sama sekali tidak menyesal karena ia telah menyelamatkan nyawa anak itu. Jika tidak dibawanya ke rumah sakit, bukan tidak mungkin nyawa anak itu tidak tertolong. Ia sangat sadar bahwa ia akan terkena hukuman disiplin; akan tetapi baginya menyelamatkan nyawa seseorang lebih berharga walau kena hukuman dari pada membiarkan orang mati tanpa perlu menjalani hukuman.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Kegunaan filsafat yang kedua adalah memahami perbedaan berpikir. Kehidupan masyarakat bersifat heterogen dan plural. Masing-masing kelompok dan masing-masing individu dalam kelompok mempunyai pandangan hidup yang berbeda-beda. Kebenaran dalam filsafat bersifat relational artinya bergantung kepada hal yang lain, misalnya nilai-nilai, agama, ideologi, dll. Filsafat memberikan landasan untuk berargumentasi mempertahankan pendapat masing-masing sekaligus menghargai perbedaan. Sebagai contoh, seseorang sedari kecil hidup dalam suasana religius tertentu. Pada saat kuliah di Belanda, teman-teman yang pandai dan dikaguminya adalah orang-orang atheis. Teman-temannya itu bertingkah laku baik dan bahkan suka menolong. Ia terkejut bukan alang-kepalang. Ia mulai adu argumentasi dengan teman-temannya. Ia lalu memahami dasar pemikiran teman-temannya meskipun ia sendiri masih teguh dalam pendiriannya.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Dari uraian Robert C. Solomon itu, sebenarnya filsafat merupakan cara berfikir (way of thinking) atau metode berfikir (denk methode). Sudah barang tentu cara berfikir ini dipengaruhi oleh pandangan-pandangan yang berkembang dari masa ke masa seiring dengan tingkat perkembangan pemikiran manusia. Oleh karena yang mempersoalkan hakikat realita adalah masyarakat Barat, yang dalam hal ini orang-orang Yunani, tidaklah heran kalau pemikiran filosofis dipandang sebagai pemikiran Barat dan dimulai dari tanah Gerika tersebut. Yang pertama kali mempersoalkan hakikat sesuatu adalah Thales, yang hidup di pantai Asia Kecil (sekarang wilayah Turki yang dekat Yunani) pada sekitar 580 s.M. Ia dipandang sebagai pemikir pertama yang tidak lagi hanya mengandalkan akal sehat melainkan menawarkan teori umum tentang realitas yang paling hakiki.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Sebelum Thales mempersoalkan realitas paling hakiki, pemikiran manusia, baik yang ada di belahan bumi Barat maupun Timur pada umumnya hanya terpancang kepada dua hal, yaitu yang bersifat fisis, yaitu ragawi yang tampak dan yang bersifat transenden, yaitu the supernatural being yang dipercaya mempunyai kuasa di luar kekuasaan manusia. Thales mengemukakan alternatif lain, yaitu sesuatu yang metafisis artinya bukan bersifat fisis atau ragawi namun juga bukan transenden. Dunia Timur yang masih sangat transendental menolak pemikiran filosofis yang hanya mengandalkan akal fikiran karena dianggap merusak kepercayaan atau iman masyarakat. Hal itu terlihat pada awal perkembangan agama Kristen. Dalam kitab Kolose 2:8, Paulus menasihati orang-orang Kolose sebagai berikut: &lt;span style="font-style: italic; color: rgb(0, 0, 153);"&gt;“Hati-hatilah, supaya jangan ada yang menawan kamu dengan filsafatnya yang kosong dan palsu menurut ajaran turun-temurun dan roh-roh dunia, tetapi tidak menurut Kristus.”&lt;/span&gt; Sebelumnya, di dalam kitab Kisah Para Rasul 17:18, Paulus berdebat dengan beberapa ahli pikir dari golongan Epikuros dan Stoa. Perlu dikemukakan bahwa menurut kaum Stoa seluruh jagad raya diperintah oleh “reason” (akal fikiran) dan akal fikiran manusia merupakan bagian dari fikiran yang universal. Oleh karena itulah, apabila orang hidup sesuai dengan akal fikiran, ia hidup sesuai dengan alam. Sedangkan filsafat Epikuros menggabungkan antara jasmani yang didasarkan atas bahan-bahan yang atomistik dengan ethika hedonisme rasional yang menitikberatkan pengekangan keinginan dan menumbuhkan persahabatan. Pandangan dunianya bersifat optimis dan menekankan bahwa filsafat dapat membebaskan seseorang dari ketakutan, maut, dan supernatural, dan mengajar kepada kita bagaimana menemukan kebahagiaan dalam hampir setiap situasi. Agama Kristen yang berasal dari dunia Timur sudah barang tentu menolak pemikiran Barat yang hanya mengandalkan akal fikiran semata-mata.  Bahkan hingga saat ini beberapa negara Timur Tengah yang menjadikan agama Islam sebagai dasar negara, di antaranya Kuwait melarang diajarkannya filsafat.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Mengingat cara berfikir dipengaruhi oleh perkembangan pemikiran dari masa ke masa, filsafat pun juga menguraikan perkembangan pemikiran dari masa ke masa. Dalam hal ini filsafat akan menyoal mengenai mulai dari hakikat sesuatu sebagaimana dikemukakan oleh Thales pada masa pra-Sokrates sampai kepada masalah-masalah moralitas, politik, keadilan, dan kebebasan. Masalah-masalah tersebut erat berkaitan dengan hukum.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Akan tetapi tidak semua topik yang ada dalam filsafat berkaitan dengan hukum. Topik-topik yang berkaitan dengan hukum itulah yang menjadi perbincangan filsafat hukum. Dengan demikian, sebenarnya filsafat hukum bukan merupakan bagian dari filsafat, melainkan lebih tepat merupakan bagian dari ilmu hukum. Seseorang yang bukan ahli hukum tidak mampu berbicara mengenai penyalahgunaan hak (misbruik van recht) meskipun konsep hak sarat dengan pemikiran filosofis. Oleh karena itulah memang sudah tepat kalau tempat filsafat hukum berada di fakultas hukum dan yang mengajar adalah sarjana hukum karena setiap sarjana hukum belajar filsafat dan bukan sebaliknya.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Lebih jelas lagi, semua penulis kontinental mengemukakan aliran-aliran dalam filsafat hukum. Hal itu mirip dengan jurisprudence dalam alam fikiran Anglo-American. Memang, beberapa penulis Anglo-American menggunakan secara bergantian istilah jurisprudence dan philosophy of law. Akan tetapi beberapa penulis secara tegas memberi judul tulisannya Philosophy of Law, misalnya Ronald Dworkin dan Thomas Morawetz. Di samping itu yang pertama kali menggunakan istilah Philosophy of Law adalah Roscoe Pound dengan bukunya yang terkenal An Introduction to Philosophy of Law yang edisi perdananya terbit pada tahun 1922 dan diterbitkan oleh Yale University Press. Pada Kata Pengantar yang ditulis tanggal 25 Oktober 1921 untuk edisi perdana itu Roscoe Pound menulis&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-style: italic; color: rgb(0, 0, 153);"&gt;... Until some Anglo-American jurist arises with the universal equipment of Josef Kohler the result of common-law incursions into philosophy will resemble the effort of the editorial writer who wrote upon Chinese metaphysics after reading in the Encyclopedia Britannica under China and metaphysics and combining in information. Yet such incursions there must be. Philosophy has been a powerful instrument in the legal armory and the times are ripe for restoring it to place its old place therein...&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Melalui Kata Pengantar itu, Roscoe Pound justru mengharuskan adanya “penyerbuan” atau yang ia ungkapkan sebagai incursion ke dalam filsafat. Ia mengakui bahwa filsafat merupakan instrumen yang sangat kuat dalam gudang senjata hukum sehingga pada saatnya akan dikembalikan ke tempat semula, yang dalam hal ini adalah hukum. Isi Philosophy of Law baik yang ditulis oleh Pund, Morawetz dan Dworkin berbeda dari isi buku dengan judul jurisprudence. Namun demikian, pandangan Pound dan Dworkin juga sering dikutip dalam buku-buku berjudul jurisprudence. Hal ini makin mengukuhkan argumentasi bahwa filsafat hukum berada dalam ruang lingkup ilmu hukum bukan bagian dari filsafat.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Titik berat studi filsafat hukum adalah hukum, bukan filsafat. Pemikiran filosofis dengan segala perkembangannya dipelajari dalam rangka menjelaskan aturan hukum yang berlaku baik yang tertulis maupun yang tidak tertulis. Pandangan-pandangan itu seyogyanya dikemukakan secara topikal bukan secara kronologis artinya perbincangan dalam filsafat hukum yang menyangkut pandangan-pandangan para penulis bukan disajikan berdasarkan urut-urutan waktu masa hidup penulisnya, melainkan berdasarkan topik yang dibahas. Dengan secara topikal, akan terlihat adanya pertentangan-pertentangan pandangan dan penyelesaian terhadap pandangan-pandangan itu yang mempunyai relevansi terhadap aturan hukum. Untuk meneguhkan pemikiran demikian, perlu dikutip kelanjutan dari Kata Pengantar Roscoe Pound edisi perdana An Introduction to the Philosophy of Law sebagai berikut:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-style: italic; color: rgb(0, 0, 153);"&gt;At least one may show what philosophy has done for some of the chief problems of the science of law, what stands before us to be done in some of the more conspicious problems of that science today in which philosophy may help us, and how it is possible to look at these problems philosophically without treating them in terms of eighteen-century natural law or the nineteenth-century metaphysical jurisprudence which stands for philosophy in the general understanding of lawyers.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/"&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-7771771136252408595?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/7771771136252408595/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/tempat-filsafat-hukum-dalam-studi-hukum.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/7771771136252408595'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/7771771136252408595'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/tempat-filsafat-hukum-dalam-studi-hukum.html' title='Tempat Filsafat Hukum dalam Studi Hukum'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-8347290054101296428</id><published>2009-07-05T19:08:00.008+07:00</published><updated>2009-07-14T01:12:10.047+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Law'/><title type='text'>Mengapa Filsafat Hukum Tidak Menarik?</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=id&amp;w=157&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Setiap mahasiswa yang telah menempuh mata kuliah filsafat hukum pada umumnya menyatakan bahwa mata kuliah itu membingungkan, di awang-awang, abstrak, tidak menarik, menjemukan, dan sukar. Mereka tidak mengetahui untuk apa mereka harus belajar mata kuliah itu. Mereka menempuh filsafat hukum karena merupakan mata kuliah wajib. Andaikata bukan mata kuliah wajib, tentu hanya mereka yang suka merenung saja yang mengambil mata kuliah itu atau barangkali mata kuliah itu tidak diselenggarakan karena hanya sedikit yang memilihnya. Alhasil, mereka menempuh filsafat hukum hanya karena keterpaksaan saja sebagai pemanis dalam menggapai sarjana hukum. &lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;Setelah lulus, yang mereka ingat paling-paling nama-nama Plato, Aristoteles, Immanuel Kant, dll. dan aliran-aliran utilitarianisme, naturalisme, dll. Akan tetapi untuk apa aliran-aliran ini dalam praktik hukum dan dalam konteks apakah fikiran para pemikir itu dapat diterapkan mereka tidak mengerti. Yang penting lulus dan bekerja atau berprofesi. Bahkan kalau perlu tidak harus lulus, melainkan lolos dengan nilai D untuk filsafat hukum, mereka sudah gembira.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Ternyata, dengan nilai filsafat hukum pas-pasan atau bahkan hanya lolos dengan nilai D tidak sedikit yang sukses dalam melakukan profesinya sebagai sarjana hukum, baik sebagai lawyer, in-house lawyer, jaksa, maupun hakim. Bukan itu saja, tidak sedikit juga profesor doktor yang nilai filsafat hukumnya pas-pasan atau hanya lolos dengan nilai D. Mereka ini adalah orang-orang brilian tetapi mengapa mata kuliah filsafatnya tidak mendapat nilai yang baik? Kenyataan ini merupakan terjemahan apa?&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Kemungkinan pertama dan paling ekstrem adalah filsafat hukum tidak ada gunanya. Jika memang demikian, untuk apa mata kuliah itu ditawarkan? Jawaban klasik yang selalu dilontarkan adalah “Sejak dahulu mata kuliah itu harus ditempuh oleh calon sarjana hukum sehingga tidak mungkin dihilangkan.” Jawaban semacam itu lebih bersifat ritual dari pada argumentatif akademis sehingga kira-kira sama dengan tidak beraninya suatu komunitas tertentu menghilangkan tradisi wayangan karena takut kualat.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Kemungkinan kedua adalah mata kuliah filsafat hukum bukan merupakan instrumen untuk memprediksi kecerdasan seseorang sebagaimana matematika. Mereka yang matematikanya kuat adalah orang-orang yang cerdas karena mampu mendayagunakan logika mereka. Filsafat adalah scientia rerum per causas ultimas atau terjemahannya pengetahuan mengenai hal-ikhwal berdasarkan sebab-musabab yang paling dalam.  Apabila ditilik dari pengertian tersebut, filsafat seharusnya sama dengan matematika sebagai alat untuk memprediksi kecerdasan seseorang.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Jika filsafat hukum yang diajarkan di fakultas hukum saat ini memang tidak dapat digunakan sebagai instrumen untuk memprediksi kecerdasan calon sarjana hukum, niscaya ada yang salah dengan mata kuliah itu. Kesalahan itu terletak pada isi kandungan mata kuliah itu tidak sesuai dengan hakikat filsafat sebagai scientia rerum per causas ultimas. Jika pengertian itu diikuti, filsafat hukum akan mempunyai pengertian sebagai pengetahuan mengenai hal-ikhwal berdasarkan sebab-musabab yang paling dalam tentang adanya hukum. Dengan demikian, isi kandungan mata kuliah filsafat hukum adalah dasar ontologis atau teori tentang adanya hukum di bidang kehidupan tertentu baik hukum tertulis maupun tidak tertulis, ratio legis adanya ketentuan tertentu perundang-undangan, hubungan antara negara dan individu, hubungan antara individu dengan individu dalam hidup bermasyarakat dalam bingkai negara, prinsip-prinsip hukum, masalah legitimasi aturan hukum, dan nilai-nilai yang harus dijawab oleh hukum (axiology). Jika bukan pokok-pokok itu yang menjadi isi kandungan filsafat hukum, di situ letak kesalahan mengapa mata kuliah itu tidak mampu sebagai alat prediksi bagi kemampuan calon sarjana hukum. Akan tetapi jika pokok-pokok itu yang menjadi isi kandungan mata kuliah filsafat hukum, hanya mereka yang duduk di semester akhir atau satu semester sebelum semester akhir yang mampu mengambil mata kuliah itu sebab mereka telah belajar baik hukum materiil maupun hukum formilnya dari setiap lapangan hukum. Namun demikian, tidak semua isi kandungan mata kuliah filsafat hukum relevan dengan tujuan penyelenggaraan pendidikan fakultas hukum stratum satu (S-1) yang menghasilkan practitioner jurists. Masalah-masalah yang bersifat aksiologis dan prinsip-prinsip hukum bukan porsi stratum satu (S-1). Begitu pula stratum dua (S-2) yang sebenarnya merupakan peningkatan keahlian yuris, mereka tidak membutuhkan masalah-masalah yang bersifat aksiologis maupun prinsip-prinsip hukum. Masalah-masalah yang bersifat aksiologis dan prinsip-prinsip hukum adalah porsi bagi mereka yang ingin menulis disertasi hukum. Lalu, untuk S-2 hukum apakah perlu filsafat hukum? Tidak perlu, karena mereka telah mempelajarinya pada saat S-1. Yang lebih mereka butuhkan adalah teori hukum/ilmu hukum yang dalam bahasa Inggris-nya jurisprudence karena dalam penulisan tesis, mereka harus membangun suatu teori.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Akan tetapi untuk mengajarkan isi kandungan mata kuliah filsafat hukum yang relevan bagi mahasiswa stratum satu (S-1) perlu dosen bukan hanya yang mampu berteori saja, melainkan juga yang tahu tentang praktik hukum. Tidak dapat disangkal, pada saat sekarang ini, pada banyak fakultas hukum di Indonesia, isi kandungan filsafat hukum yang diajarkan jauh dari apa yang telah dikemukakan. Lebih-lebih setelah berakhirnya periode ujian negara tahun 1990-an, kontrol dari fakultas hukum pembina sudah tidak ada sehingga mata kuliah filsafat hukum hanya merupakan pelengkap penyerta, hanya sekadar memenuhi kurikulum nasional. Isi kandungan mata kuliah yang diajarkan oleh seorang dosen merupakan bahan-bahan yang diperoleh dari dosennya dan dosen ini mendapatkan dari dosennya pula dan begitulah seterusnya. Dosen semacam itu tidak mengerti kegunaan praktis filsafat hukum. Oleh karena itulah ia tidak mampu memberitahu mahasiswa untuk apa belajar filsafat hukum dan mana yang relevan untuk dipelajari. Alhasil, ada atau tidak ada filsafat hukum, tidak mempunyai pengaruh apa-apa terhadap kesarjanaan hukum lulusan fakultas hukum.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Jika demikian, tidak sebaiknya dihilangkan saja mata kuliah itu dari kurikulum nasional fakultas hukum? Barangkali kalau saja mata kuliah itu dihilangkan, para mahasiswa hukum akan bersorak gembira karena tidak masuk ke ladang penyiksaan selama satu semester. Sedangkan di lain fihak, tidak berpengaruh apa-apa terhadap kesarjanaannya.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Tentu saja penempatan mata kuliah filsafat hukum di fakultas hukum stratum 1 (S-1) bukan tanpa dasar pemikiran yang kuat. Gagasannya adalah setelah menempuh mata kuliah itu, diharapkan setelah lulus menjadi sarjana hukum, mereka mampu menerapkan aturan-aturan hukum atau membuat naskah akademis atau kontrak atau memecahkan masalah-masalah hukum secara memadai. Gagasan itu menempatkan filsafat hukum sebagai instrumen untuk memprediksi kecerdasan calon sarjana hukum. Di samping itu filsafat hukum juga dimaksudkan sebagai pisau analisis untuk memecahkan masalah-masalah hukum. Bagi mereka yang pernah belajar Marxisme, akan terasa bahwa historis materialisme yang diajarkan oleh Karl Marx benar-benar dapat menjadi pisau analisis dalam memecahkan masalah-masalah sosial dari segi strukturalisme. Sebaliknya, mereka yang belajar Max Weber dan Talcott Parson, menjadikan teori mereka untuk memecahkan masalah-masalah sosial secara fungsional.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Pertanyaannya adalah mampukah filsafat hukum menjadi pisau analisis dalam menelaah masalah-masalah hukum dan sekaligus menjadi dasar bagi pembangunan argumentasi hukum untuk kebutuhan praktik hukum? Seharusnya memang demikian, jika yang diajarkan benar dan yang mengajarkan juga benar.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Filsafat hukum sangat berguna. Mereka yang bergerak di dunia praktis sehari-hari sangat memerlukan filsafat hukum. Begitu juga mereka yang merancang naskah akademis maupun yang juga berada di dunia akademis sangat membutuhkan filsafat hukum. Akan tetapi mereka tidak mendapatkannya dari mata kuliah filsafat hukum.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Memang, pada saat ini, pelajaran filsafat hukum identik dengan serangkaian nama filosof dari Plato sampai mungkin Roberto Mangabaira Unger dan aliran-alirannya. Mahasiswa tidak diberitahu untuk apa dan dalam rangka apa aliran itu disusun. Apakah relevansi menerangkan aliran-aliran itu dengan situasi yang dihadapi? Apakah konteks sosial politik pada saat dibangunnya aliran-aliran itu masih relevan untuk dibahas? Lalu, apakah proyeksi aliran-aliran itu untuk masa kini?&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Ada kalanya pengajar tidak mampu membedakan antara filsafat dan filsafat hukum. Bahkan ada kalanya yang bukan merupakan filsafat hukum dimasukkan sebagai bagian dari filsafat hukum. Pandangan Jurgen Habermas, misalnya, kadang ditampilkan dan dipelajari sebagai filsafat hukum; Habermas memang seorang filosof, tetapi yang ia ajarkan bukan filsafat hukum. Sebaliknya, pandangan Lon L. Fuller dan Ronald Dworkin jarang dikemukakan. Mereka berdua adalah para penentang positivis baru H.L.A. Hart. Hal itu dapat terjadi karena kurang mampunya mereka membedakan antara filsafat sosial dan filsafat hukum.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Agar filsafat hukum tidak menjadi monster dan sekaligus menarik untuk dipelajari serta dibutuhkan mahasiswa perlu beberapa hal yang harus dilakukan. Pertama, sekalipun filsafat hukum meliputi prinsip-prinsip hukum dan masalah-masalah yang bersifat aksiologis, kedua hal itu tidak perlu diajarkan karena tidak bersangkut paut dengan kebutuhan calon sarjana hukum. Hal-hal itu dapat diajarkan dalam rangka penulisan disertasi doktor karena seorang doktor harus dapat membangun argumentasi baru bagi pengembangan keilmuan hukum. Kedua, dosen pengajarnya bukan hanya mengetahui teori saja, melainkan juga tahu tentang praktik meskipun ia sendiri mungkin bukan praktikus. Ketiga, dalam pembelajaran banyak dikemukakan contoh-contoh tentang undang-undang, putusan-putusan pengadilan, kontrak, tindakan administrasi, keputusan tata usaha negara, dll. Contoh-contoh itu dikemukakan menyertai pokok-pokok bahasan sehingga pembahasan tidak berada di awang-awang. Keempat, diskusi tentang pandangan-pandangan sarjana dalam konteks kekinian apakah masih relevan atau tidak. Apabila hal-hal semacam ini diikuti, mata kuliah filsafat hukum yang memang sulit akan dijadikan mudah dan tidak diawang-awang serta mempunyai relevansi dengan kebutuhan praktis.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Sumber :Prof. Peter Mahmud Marzuki (Guru Besar Fakultas Hukum Unair)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/"&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-8347290054101296428?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/8347290054101296428/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/mengapa-filsafat-hukum-tidak-menarik.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/8347290054101296428'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/8347290054101296428'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/07/mengapa-filsafat-hukum-tidak-menarik.html' title='Mengapa Filsafat Hukum Tidak Menarik?'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-6103432454013549838</id><published>2009-06-28T12:37:00.005+07:00</published><updated>2009-07-14T01:13:33.267+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Law'/><title type='text'>Contoh Visum et Repertum untuk PLKH</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=id&amp;w=157&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: center;"&gt;------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------&lt;br /&gt;INSTALASI KEDOKTERAN FORENSIK DAN MEDIKO LEGAL&lt;br /&gt;RUMAH SAKIT UMUM DAERAH&lt;br /&gt;KEDIRI&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: center;"&gt;------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: center;"&gt;VISUM ET  REPERTUM&lt;br /&gt;( JENAZAH  )&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;Th.2008&lt;br /&gt;No. KF. 05. 333.&lt;br /&gt;PRO  JUSTITIA.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: center;"&gt;      Berhubung  dengan surat  Saudara.----------------------------------------&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;  Nama  : AGUK NUGROHO, -Pangkat : AIPTU. Nrp. 030610088.--------------------&lt;br /&gt;Alamat  : Kepolisian Sektor Kota Kediri,Jl.Raya Made No.50   Kediri 64219.------------&lt;br /&gt; Jabatan  : An. Kepala.Kepolisian Sektor kota Kediri.----------------------------------&lt;br /&gt; Tertanggal : 2 Agustus 2008, -No.Pol:224/01/10/2008.----------------------------&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Yang kami terima pada tanggal ; 2 Agustus 2008,------------------------ maka kami, Dr. Hj. Andati Tyagita SpF. Dokter Spesialis Forensik, Dokter pemerintah pada Instalasi Kedokteran Forensik dan Mediko Legal RSUD Kediri, telah melakukan pemeriksaan luar--&lt;br /&gt;-pada tanggal: 2 Agustus 2008, -pukul: 16.00 WIB dan pemeriksaan dalam---&lt;br /&gt;-pada tanggal: 2 Agustus 2008, -pukul: 16.30 WIB di rumah sakit tersebut di atas, atas jenazah yang menurut surat Saudara tersebut,----------------------------------------------&lt;br /&gt;-Bernama: Supadno,  -Jenis kelamin: Laki-laki, -Umur: 50 Tahun.-&lt;br /&gt;-Alamat : Jalan Adityawarman 50 Kediri,------------&lt;br /&gt;-Bangsa : Indonesia  ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;Dengan dugaan meninggal karena : Pembunuhan. ---------------------------------------------&lt;br /&gt;Korban ditemukan/ meninggal : di Ruang tamu rumahnya dalam keadaan mengeluarkan busa dari dalam mulutnya------------------------------------------------------------------------------&lt;br /&gt;- Pada tanggal : 2 Agustus 2008, - Pukul : 07.00 WIB.--------------------------------------------&lt;br /&gt;Korban dibawa ke kamar jenazah RSU. Dr.Soedomo Kediri,-----------------------------------&lt;br /&gt;-Oleh : AGUK NUGROHO, -Pangkat : AIPTU. Nrp. 030610088 ,-----------------------------Dengan kendaraan No.Pol.: AG 1234 UA&lt;br /&gt;-Pada tanggal:  2 Agustus 2008,----------------------------Pukul : 11-30------------------------------&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: center; font-weight: bold;"&gt;HASIL PEMERIKSAAN&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;PEMERIKSAAN LUAR :&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1. Korban seorang Laki-laki, Usia  Lima puluh tahun , Tinggi badan kurang lebih seratus enam puluh lima centimeter, Berat badan lima puluh kilogram, keadaan gizi baik, warna kulit sawo matang. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------&lt;br /&gt;2. Lebam mayat dan kaku mayat negatif. ------------------------------------------------------------&lt;br /&gt;3. Korban berlabel dan tidak bersegel, keadaan gizi baik. ----------------------------------------&lt;br /&gt;4. Pakaian sarung, celana dalam putih dan memakai kaos singlet. ---------------------------&lt;br /&gt;5. Kepala / leher : baik-------------------------------------------------------------------  rambut hitam lurus.-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------&lt;br /&gt;-   di samping bibir masih terdapat sedikit busa putih------------------------------------------&lt;br /&gt;-  kedua pupil mata melebar -----------------------------------------------------------------------&lt;br /&gt;-  bibir atas dan bawah membiru -------------------------------------------------------------------&lt;br /&gt;-  mulut berisi busa warna putih. ----------------------------------------------------------------&lt;br /&gt;-  di bawah leher ada  bekas cengkeraman kuku-------------------------------------------------&lt;br /&gt; 6. Dada  : -tidak ditemukan tanda kekerasan tumpul maupun tajam.&lt;br /&gt; 7. Perut  : -tidak ditemukan tanda kekerasan tumpul maupun tajam.&lt;br /&gt; 8. Punggung : -tidak ditemukan tanda kekerasan tumpul maupun tajam.&lt;br /&gt; 9. Alat kelamin luar : -------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------&lt;br /&gt;- dari lubang alat kelamin keluar cairan putih----------------------------------------------------&lt;br /&gt;10. Anggota gerak atas : --tidak ditemukan tanda kekerasan tumpul maupun tajam--------&lt;br /&gt;11. Anggota gerak bawah : -tidak ditemukan tanda kekerasan tumpul  maupun tajam-----&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;PEMERIKSAAN DALAM  :&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1.  Kepala / leher : ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------&lt;br /&gt;-  saluran kerongkongan tampak merah dan berlendir. ---------------------------------------&lt;br /&gt; 2.   Dada : -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------&lt;br /&gt;-   paru dan jantung tidak ditemukan kelainan. -------------------------------------------------&lt;br /&gt;-  perut : jaringan hati, limpa, kelenjar ludah perut, kandung empedu, usus dan ginjal, kandung seni, ditemukan kelainan, -------------------------------------------------&lt;br /&gt;PEMERIKSAAN TAMBAHAN  :&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Ditemukan racun pada hati, usus, limpa, jantung korban---------------------------------------------&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;KESIMPULAN  :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1. Korban seorang Laki-laki, Usia  Lima puluh tahun , Tinggi badan kurang lebih seratus enam puluh lima centimeter, Berat badan lima puluh kilogram, keadaan gizi baik, warna kulit sawo matang, rambut lurus hitam, panjang kurang lebih lima  centimeter. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------&lt;br /&gt;2. Pemeriksaan Luar : -------------------------------------------------------tidak ditemukan luka memar, luka lubang, luka robek di sekitar mulut, serta mulut berbusa---------------------&lt;br /&gt;3. Pemeriksaan Dalam: ----------------------------------------------------- tidak ditemukan memar di bawah kulit kepala, memar di bawah kulit leher dan memar di bawah kulit dada serta ditemukan cairan warna merah di rongga dada. ------------------------------------------&lt;br /&gt;4. Pada  alat kelamin ditemukan keluar cairan  warna putih dari lubang kelamin. ----------&lt;br /&gt;5. Jadi korban meninggal dunia oleh karena keracunan. -------------------------------------------&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Demikian Visum Et Repertum ini kami buat dengan mengingat sumpah waktu menerima jabatan.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: right;"&gt;        Tanda tangan,  &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;       ( Dr. Hj. ANDANTI TYGITA, SpF. )&lt;br /&gt;NIP. 030610012&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/"&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-6103432454013549838?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/6103432454013549838/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/contoh-visum-et-repertum-untuk-plkh.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/6103432454013549838'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/6103432454013549838'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/contoh-visum-et-repertum-untuk-plkh.html' title='Contoh Visum et Repertum untuk PLKH'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-6773856902673673431</id><published>2009-06-28T12:20:00.007+07:00</published><updated>2009-07-14T01:13:38.537+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='iTech'/><title type='text'>Melacak Lokasi Melalui Nomor Handphone</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=id&amp;w=157&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Mungkin anda salah seorang yang pernah merasa terganggu dengan adanya "cumi" cuma misscall, saya rasa anda tidak sendirian karena banyak diluar sana yang pernah mengalaminya termasuk penulis sendiri juga pernah mengalami. untuk anda yang ingin mengetahui nomor daerah mana yang menghubungi atau meneror anda via HP anda bisa coba untuk melacaknya,&lt;span class='fullpost'&gt; tunggu dulu, mohon maaf karena layanan ini baru tersedia untuk nomor telkomsel dan masih dalam pengembangan untuk nomor indosat dan operator lainnya. jika berminat silakan &lt;a href="http://pulsa.web.id/hlrlookup"&gt;&lt;u&gt;klik disini&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/"&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-6773856902673673431?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/6773856902673673431/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/melacak-lokasi-melalui-nomor-handphone.html#comment-form' title='3 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/6773856902673673431'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/6773856902673673431'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/melacak-lokasi-melalui-nomor-handphone.html' title='Melacak Lokasi Melalui Nomor Handphone'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>3</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-7591274300311548981</id><published>2009-06-28T00:36:00.006+07:00</published><updated>2009-07-14T01:16:44.745+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Law'/><title type='text'>Legal Opinion Jual – Beli Limbah Rumah Sakit Saiful Anwar (RSSA) Malang</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=id&amp;w=157&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Kasus Posisi&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt; Petugas instalasi pengelola limbah (IPL) RSSA Malang, Rudi Setiono, tertangkap basah melakukan praktik jual-beli limbah medis rumah sakit dengan lima orang pembeli limbah rumah sakit tersebut. Padahal seharusnya limbah itu di daur ulang atau dimusnahkan. Dalam keterangannya pada polisi dia mengaku bahwa praktek penjualan limbah itu atas perintah dari atasannya Daryono selaku kepala IPL RSSA serta Saiful Anwar selaku dirut RSSA. Penjualan itu  diketahui oleh manajemen RSSA Malang sudah bertahun-tahun. Dari hasil penangkapan itu polisi mengamankan barang bukti berupa 57,5 kg botol plastik bekas tempat infus, 50 kg botol kaca bekas obat suntik, 50 kg selang plastik  untuk infus, 29 kg alat suntik bekas tanpa jarum. Diketahui hasil penjualan limbah tersebut dibagi rata antara petugas pengangkutan, operator IPL RSSA dan sisanya dijadikan pemasukan dalam kas daur ulang IPL.&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Fakta Hukum&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;• Rudi Setiono (petugas IPL RSSA) menjual limbah medis tanpa di daur ulang kepada 5 pengepul (Pembeli).&lt;br /&gt;• Pembeli limbah lima orang.&lt;br /&gt;• Rudi Setiono (petugas IPL RSSA), dan operator IPL RSSA menyatakan bahwa penjualan limbah tersebut atas perintah dari atasan mereka dan diketahui oleh manajemen RSSA.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Sumber Hukum&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1. UUD 1945&lt;br /&gt;2. UU No. 23 / 1999 tentang Pengelolaan Lingkungan Hidup&lt;br /&gt;3. PP No. 18 / 1999 tentang Pengelolaan Limbah Berbahaya dan Beracun jo PP No. 85/ 1999 tentang Perubahan atas PP No. 18/1999&lt;br /&gt;4. Kitab Undang – undang Hukum Pidana&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Isu Hukum&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1. Apakah Limbah Medis dapat diperjual belikan tanpa di daur ulang?&lt;br /&gt;2. Bagaimana penegakan hukum terhadap kasus tersebut?&lt;br /&gt;3. Siapakah yang bertanggung jawab atas perbuatan pidana yang terjadi?&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Analisa Hukum&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1. &lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Limbah medis termasuk limbah B3 jadi tidak boleh diperjual-belikan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Berdasarkan ketentuan pasal 1 angka 12 UU No. 23/1997 tentang Pengelolaan Lingkungan Hidup, Pencemaran lingkungan hidup adalah masuknya atau dimasukkannya makhluk hidup, zat, energi, dan/atau komponen lain ke dalam lingkungan hidup oleh kegiatan manusia sehingga kualitasnya turun sampai tingkat tertentu yang menyebabkan lingkungan hidup tidak dapat berfungsi sesuai dengan peruntukannya.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Berdasarkan ketentuan pasal 1 angka 18 UU No. 23/1997 tentang Pengelolaan Lingkungan Hidup juga PP No.18/1999 jo PP No. 85/1999 bahwa Limbah B3 (bahan berbahaya dan beracun) adalah sisa suatu usaha dan/atau kegiatan yang mengandung bahan berbahaya dan/atau beracun yang karena sifat dan/atau konsentrasinya dan/atau jumlahnya, baik secara langsung maupun tidak langsung, dapat mencemarkan dan/atau merusakkan lingkungan hidup, dan/atau dapat membahayakan lingkungan hidup, kesehatan, kelangsungan hidup manusia serta makhluk hidup lain.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Limbah yang diperjual belikan oleh RSSA adalah limbah rumah sakit, yang secara wujud dapat berbentuk padat, cair, maupun gas dan partikulat. Karakteristiknyapun ada yang tergolong sebagai limbah bahan berbahaya dan beracun (limbah B3) maupun yang non-B3. Menurut PP No. 18 / 1999 tentang Pengelolaan Limbah Berbahaya dan Beracun jo PP No. 85/ 1999 tentang Perubahan atas PP No. 18/1999 dalam lampiran I menyatakan bahwa limbah Rumah Sakit termasuk dalam daftar limbah B3 dari sumber yang spesifik dengan kode D227 yang sumber pencemaranya berasal dari seluruh Rumah Sakit (berarti RSSA merupakan penghasil limbah B3) dan Laboratorium Klinik dengan asal/uraian limbah sebagai berikut :&lt;br /&gt;- Limbah klinis&lt;br /&gt;- Produk farmasi kadaluarsa&lt;br /&gt;- Peralatan lab terkontaminasi&lt;br /&gt;- Kemasan produk farmasi&lt;br /&gt;- Limbah laboratorium&lt;br /&gt;- Residu dari proses insinerasi&lt;br /&gt;Dan, pencemaran utamanya : Limbah terinfeksi, Residu produk farmasi, Bahan-bahan kimia.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Jadi limbah RSSA termasuk B3. menurut ketentuan pasal 43 ayat (1) UUPLH :&lt;br /&gt;“Barang siapa yang dengan melanggar ketentuan perundang-undangan yang berlaku, sengaja melepaskan atau membuang zat, energi, dan/atau komponen lain yang berbahaya atau beracun masuk di atas atau ke dalam tanah, ke dalam udara atau ke dalam air permukaan, melakukan impor, ekspor, memperdagangkan, mengangkut, menyimpan bahan tersebut, menjalankan instalasi yang berbahaya, padahal mengetahui atau sangat beralasan untuk menduga bahwa perbuatan tersebut dapat menimbulkan pencemaran dan/atau perusakan lingkungan hidup atau membahayakan kesehatan umum atau nyawa orang lain, diancam dengan pidana penjara paling lama enam tahun dan denda paling banyak Rp300.000.000,00 (tiga ratus juta rupiah)”&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Karena rumusan delik tersebut adalah rumusan delik formil, dimana tidak perlu memerlukan akibat atau dampak dari adaya perbuatan. Unsur-unsur perbuatan pidana pencemaran lingkungan hidup dalam pasal 43 ayat (1) UU Pengelolaan Lingkungan Hidup :&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1. Barang siapa&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Bahwa yang dimaksud “Barang Siapa” dalam kasus ini adalah “orang adalah orang perseorangan, dan/atau kelompok orang, dan / atau badan hukum” sesuai dengan pasal 1 angka 24 UU No. 23/1997 tentang Pengelolaan Lingkungan Hidup. Rumah Sakit Saiful Anwar merupakan dinas atau instansi pemerintah dan bentuknya adalah badan hukum. Maka unsur angka 1 terpenuhi&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;2. Melanggar ketentuan perundang-undangan yang berlaku&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Ketentuan perundang – undangan yang dilanggar adalah Pasal 3 PP No. 18 / 1999 tentang Pengelolaan Limbah Berbahaya dan Beracun jo PP No. 85/ 1999 tentang Perubahan atas PP No. 18/1999 yang berisi : Setiap orang yang melakukan usaha dan/atau kegiatan yang menghasilkan limbah B3 dilarang membuang limbah B3 yang dihasilkannya itu secara langsung ke dalam media lingkungan hidup, tanpa pengolahan terlebih dahulu.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Ketentuan inilah yang dilanggar oleh pelaku, yaitu melepaskan limbah atau memperjual-belikan limbah ke masyarakat tanpa melalui pengolahan terlebih dahulu. Dan dalam ketentuan PP tersebut pasal 63 penjatuhan pidananya menunjuk pasal 43 UU No.23/1997. Limbah B3 tidak boleh diperdagangkan (a contrario)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;3. Sengaja&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Unsur ini dapat dikaitkan dengan teori pengetahuan dan teori kehendak. Namun dalam kasus ini, unsur sengaja dapat dibuktikan dengan teori pengetahuan yaitu bahwa, pelaku patut diduga telah mengetahui bahwa melakukan perdagangan atau melepaskan limbah tersebut ke lingkungan tanpa diolah terlebih dahulu dapat menimbulkan pencemaran lingkungan hidup atau perusakan lingkungan hidup atau membahayakan kesehatan umum atau nyawa orang lain, maka unsur angka 3 terpenuhi&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;4. Melepaskan atau membuang zat , energy dan/atau komponen lain yang berbahaya atau beracun ( limbah B3)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Bahwa, pelaku telah melepaskan limbah rumah sakit, limbah rumah sakit itu termasuk limbah B3 ( sesuai analisis limbah B3  nomor 3 diatas) ke lingkungan yaitu ke orang lain dengan cara diperdagangkan kepada pengepul&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;5. Mengetahui atau sangat beralasan dapat menimbulkan pencemaran lingkungan hidup dan/atau perusakan lingkungan hidup atau membahayakan kesehatan umum atau nyawa orang lain.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Bahwa sebagai pelaku adalah bergerak dibidang kesehatan yang  jelas mengetahui kandungan – kandungan zat kimia yang terdapat dalam limbah yang sifatnya berbahaya yang dibuang serta dampak bagi lingkungan jika limbah tersebut dilepaskan ke lingkungan dan dampak bagi kesehatan masyarakat jika limbah tersebut beredar di masyarakat. Misalnya pemakaian alat suntik, yang hanya digunakan sekali pakai, jika dibuang sembarangan akan menimbulkan dampak yang sangat rentan yaitu jarum suntik yang dibuang sembarangan menjadi media menularnya penyakit yang diderita oleh orang yang dirawat di RS Saiful Anwar.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Dari sini dapat diketahui bahwa pelaku dapat dijerat dengan pasal 43 UU No.23/1997 tentang Pengelolaan Lingkungan Hidup dan tidak boleh menjual-belikan limbah B3.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;2. Upaya penegakan hukum dapat ditempuh dengan cara yang sesuai UU No 23/1997 yaitu :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;• Upaya penegakan hukum lingkungan secara administratif&lt;br /&gt;• Upaya penegakan hukum lingkungan secara pidana&lt;br /&gt;• Penyelesaian sengketa, ganti rugi apabila ada korban&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Penegakan hukum lingkungan administratif dapat dilakukan dengan cara :&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1. Dapat dilakukan bestuurdwang (paksaan pemerintahan) yang dilakukan oleh Gubenur/ Kepala Daerah Tingkat I sesuai pasal 25 ayat 1 UU No. 23/1997 tentang Pengelolaan Lingkungan Hidup. Yang berisi :&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Gubernur/Kepala Daerah Tingkat I berwenang melakukan paksaan pemerintahan terhadap penanggung jawab usaha dan/atau kegiatan untuk mencegah dan mengakhiri terjadinya pelanggaran, serta menanggulangi akibat yang ditimbulkan oleh suatu pelanggaran, melakukan tindakan penyelamatan, penanggulangan, dan/atau pemulihan atas beban biaya penanggung jawab usaha dan/atau kegiatan, kecuali ditentukan lain berdasarkan Undang-undang.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Ini merupakan bentuk pengawasan dari Gubernur/Kepala Daerah Tingkat I, sehingga yang bisa melakukan berstuurdwang disini adalah pemprov/Gubernur Jawa Timur terhadap pihak Rumah Sakit Saiful Anwar.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;2. Dapat dilakukan dwangsom (uang paksa) oleh Gubenur/kepala daerah tingkat I sesuai dengan pasal 25 ayat 5 UU No. 23/1997 tentang Pengelolaan Lingkungan Hidup.&lt;br /&gt;Yang berisi :&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Tindakan penyelamatan, penanggulangan dan/atau pemulihan sebagaimana dimaksud pada ayat (1) dapat diganti dengan pembayaran sejumlah uang tertentu.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Jadi dalam rangka upaya penegakan hukum represif, pemerintah / gubernur Jawa Timur berwenang untuk memaksa pihak Rumah Sakit Syaiful Anwar untuk membayar uang paksa.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;3. Dapat dilakukan pencabutan izin bagi Rumah Sakit tersebut, sesuai dengan pasal 27 ayat 1 UU No. 23/1997 tentang Pengelolaan Lingkungan Hidup. Yang berisi :&lt;br /&gt;Pelanggaran tertentu dapat dijatuhi sanksi berupa pencabutan izin usaha dan/atau kegiatan&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;4. Dapat dilakukan Penghentian sementara alat penyimpanan, pengumpulan dan pengolahan limbah B3 yang ada di dalam rumah sakit saiful anwar tersebut. Ini sesuai dengan PP No. 18/1999 jo PP No.85/1999 dilakukan oleh instansi yang berwenang yaitu Menteri Negara Lingkungan Hidup.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;3. Mengenai siapa yang bertanggung jawab adalah :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1. Rudi Setiono (petugas IPL RSSA), operator IPL RSSA, dan petugas pengangkutan, yang melakukan penjualan limbah B3. Juga bagian kas daur ulang RSSA yang mengetahui bahwa keuntungan hasil penjualan tersebut adalah berasal dari penjualan limbah (disebut pihak Penjual). serta lima orang pembeli/pengepul limbah tersebut, mereka dikenai pasal 43 UU No. 23/1997 jo pasal 55 ayat 1 ke 1 Kitab Undang – undang Hukum Pidana, karena pembeli tersebut turut serta melakukan perbuatan jual beli limbah B3.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;2. Pihak Rumah Sakit Saiful Anwar yang diwakili oleh Saiful Anwar yang dalam hal ini dapat dikenakan pasal 45 UU No. 23/1997 karena Rumah Sakit tersebut mengetahui Dan memerintahkan penjualan  limbah, dapat dipidana denda dengan diperberat sepertiga. Yaitu dapat diancam pidana denda sebesar Rp 400.000.000,00 (empat ratus juta rupiah). Dan ancaman pidana sesuai dengan pasal 46 UU No.23/1997 bagi saiful anwar.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;KESIMPULAN&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Dari analisa kasus diatas, dapat disimpulkan bahwa  Apabila limbah medis tersebut diperjualbelikan dan beredar dalam masyarakat dapat menimbulkan pencemaran, kerusakan lingkungan dapat membahayakan lingkungan, kesehatan manusia dan makhluk hidup lain. Karena limbah medis termasuk dalam limbah B3 Dan tidak boleh di perjual – belikan. Oleh karena itu sanksi hukum Administrasi maupun Pidana siap menanti bagi para pelaku jual-beli limbah tersebut.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Published by &lt;a href="http://www.blogger.com/dhanajournal.blogspot.com"&gt;dhanajournal.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-7591274300311548981?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/7591274300311548981/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/legal-opinion-jual-beli-limbah-rumah.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/7591274300311548981'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/7591274300311548981'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/legal-opinion-jual-beli-limbah-rumah.html' title='Legal Opinion Jual – Beli Limbah Rumah Sakit Saiful Anwar (RSSA) Malang'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-7086828146204080581</id><published>2009-06-27T23:19:00.004+07:00</published><updated>2009-07-14T01:16:25.504+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Law'/><title type='text'>Hukum Adat Waris Masyarakat Bali</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=id&amp;w=157&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Kasus Posisi&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Silsilah keluarga :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;I Made Enteg memiliki saudara kandung I Wayan Tegir dan I Nyoman Peneng. I Made Enteg menikah dengan Ni Ketut Kerti dan memiliki seorang anak perempuan yaitu Ni Wayan Simpen.Ni Wayan Simpen dikawinkan dengan I Ketut Kaut melalui adat kawin keceburin yang dalam perkawinannya dikaruniai seorang anak perempuan yaitu Ni Wayan Ribeg, namun tak lama setelah itu Ni Wayan Simpen dan I ketut Kaut bercerai. Setelah dewasa Ni Wayan Ribeg dikawinkan dengan I Made Bila melalui adat kawin keceburin.&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;I Made Bila dan Ni Wayan Ribeg tinggal di rumah peninggalan kakeknya yaitu I Made Enteg, dan hidup dari mengolah sawah peninggalan I Made Enteg. I Wayan Tegir menikah dan memiliki dua orang anak yaitu I Wayan Meng dan I made geblekan. Keadaan menjadi berubah tidak harmonis pada tahun 1983 ketika I Made Enteg dan I Wayan Tegir meninggal.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;I Wayan Meng, anak dari I Wayan tegir, Alm. Menyatakan dirinya berhak atas harta peninggalan I Made Enteg, yaitu berupa Rumah dan sawah yang sekarang di kuasai oleh Ni Wayan Ribeg.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;I Wayan Meng menyatakan bahwa perkawinan dari Ni Wayan Ribeg tidak berdasarkan adat kawin keceburin, sehingga seharusnya Ni Wayan Ribeg tidak berhak atas harta peninggalan I Made Enteg, dan I Wayan Meng lah yang berhak.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Ni Wayan Ribeg menolak permintaan dari I Wayan Meng sehingga I Wayan Meng menggugat Ni Wayan Ribeg.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Harta Peninggalan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Sawah dengan luas 18 are terletak di subak buaji, desa kesiman, kecamatan Denpasar Timur, kabupaten Badung yang tercatat dalam buku penetapan huruf C ipeda Tk.I Bali atas nama I Made Enteg.&lt;br /&gt;Sawah dengan luas 29,5 are terletak di subak buaji, desa kesiman, kecamatan Denpasar timur, kabupaten badung yang tercatat dalam buku penetapan huruf C Ipeda Tk.I Bali atas nama I Made Enteg.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Harta Peninggalan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;- Tanah pekarangan beserta rumah seluas 6,5 are di dusun dangin tangluk, desa kesiman, kecamatan Denpasar timur, kabupaten Badung yang tercatat dalam buku daftar huruf C Ipeda Tk. I Bali.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Analisa&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;- Sistem kekeluargaan masyarakat bali pada dasarnya Patrilineal, sehingga apabila hanya ada seorang anak perempuan saja (tidak ada anak laki-laki) dalam satu keluarga, maka ketika di kawinkan dengan melalui adat keceburin, status yang melekat pada perempuan itu adalah sebagai Purusa, dan Predana pada si laki-lakinya.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Purusa dan Predana&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Purusa merupakan status sebagai laki-laki yang diberikan pada perempuan yang melangsungkan pernikahannya melalui adat keceburin (salah satu sistem perkawinan adat Bali).&lt;br /&gt;Predana merupakan status sebagai perempuan yang diberikan kepada laki-laki yang di kawinkan dengan prempuan(purusa) melalui adat keceburin.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Akibat Hukum&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Seseorang yang hanya memiliki anak tunggal perempuan, yang kemudian dikawinkan melalui upacara keceburin maka dia sebagai Purusa dari ayahnya dan bisa menjadi ahli waris dari ayahnya.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Patrilineal beralih-alih&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Seorang laki-laki bisa menyandang status sebagai perempuan, juga sebaliknya perempuan bisa berstatus sebagai laki-laki. dikenal juga upacara “Nyentane rajeg”.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Kesimpulan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Berdasarkan analisis kami, maka ahli warisnya adalah Ni Wayan Ribeg. Meskipun di bali sudah terjadi pergeseran norma sosial, misalnya berdasarkan kep. MA no.179/sip/1961 tanggal 23 okt 1961, yang mengakui persamaan hak anak perempuan dan laki-laki sebagai ahli waris.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Putusan PN&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Dalam konpensi: menolak gugatan penggugat.&lt;br /&gt;Dalam rekonpensi: menolak eksepsi tergugat.&lt;br /&gt;Mengabulkan gugatan penggugat untuk sebagian.&lt;br /&gt;Menyatakan tanah dan sawah adalah HP dari I Made Enteg.&lt;br /&gt;Perkawinan adat Ni Ribeg dan I M Bila sah menurut adat keceburin.&lt;br /&gt;Menyatakan Ni Wayan Ribeg adalah ahli waris yang berhak atas HP I Made Enteg.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Putusan PT&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Membatalkan putusan hakim PN&lt;br /&gt;Mengadili sendiri:&lt;br /&gt;Mengabulkan gugatan penggugat (I Wayan Meng);&lt;br /&gt;Menyatakan HP adalah peninggalan I Made Enteg;&lt;br /&gt;Menyatakan penggugat adalah AW dari I Made Enteg;&lt;br /&gt;Menyatakan tanah dan sawah sah milik penggugat;&lt;br /&gt;Membatalkan putusan PN dalam gugatan rekonpensi.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Putusan MA &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Membatalkan putusan PT.&lt;br /&gt;Mengadili sendiri.&lt;br /&gt;Menolak gugatan penggugat.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Oleh :&lt;br /&gt;Moh Yusuf Pra"dhana" dan Iswara Pakarman FH Unair'06&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-7086828146204080581?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/7086828146204080581/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/hukum-adat-waris-masyarakat-bali.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/7086828146204080581'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/7086828146204080581'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/hukum-adat-waris-masyarakat-bali.html' title='Hukum Adat Waris Masyarakat Bali'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-4178024252684391686</id><published>2009-06-26T13:12:00.005+07:00</published><updated>2009-07-14T01:17:27.941+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Law'/><title type='text'>Etika profesi</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=id&amp;w=157&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Etika profesiAdalah cabang dari etika.&lt;br /&gt;Apa perbedaan profesi dengan okupasi (pekerjaan)?&lt;br /&gt;Apa sajakah cabang dari keilmuan Dan filsafat??&lt;br /&gt;Filsafat adalah ibu dari segala illmu, jadi filsafat merupakan sumber dari segala ilmu yang didasarkan pada pemikiran manusia.&lt;br /&gt;Etika merupakan filsafat moral.&lt;br /&gt;Kapan pengetahuan berubah menjadi ilmu pengetahuan??&lt;br /&gt;Atau kapan knowledge berubah menjadi science??&lt;span class='fullpost'&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Jika : dalam knowledge ada aspek-aspek sbb :&lt;br /&gt;1. Aspek ontology : bicara soal obyek, hakekat, ruang lingkup.&lt;br /&gt;Ex : ilmu hukum objeknya norma hukum, etika objeknya perilaku yang sengaja, sadar akan akibatnya.&lt;br /&gt;2. Epistimologi&lt;br /&gt;3. Axiology : bicara soal nilai kegunaan / kontribusi ilmu terhadap kehidupan manusia.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Ilmu Dan penilaiannya :&lt;br /&gt;Etika dinilai dengan “baik” atau “buruk”&lt;br /&gt;Logika dinilai dengan “benar” atau “salah”&lt;br /&gt;Estetika dinilai dengan “bagus” atau “tidak”&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Hubungan antara etika, etika profesi Dan kode etik profesi :&lt;br /&gt;Etika : nilai-nilai moral yang berlaku secara umum (universal), sehingga dengan sifat universal maka etika bisa melahirkan nilai yang lebih spesifik seperti etika profesi.&lt;br /&gt;Spesifikasi etika profesi : terletak pada pemberlakuan secara khusus pada bidang profesi  tertentu.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Perbedaan Profesi dengan Okupasi (pekerjaan)&lt;br /&gt;Profesi  : &lt;br /&gt;• Ada aspek moral&lt;br /&gt;• Ada aspek pelayanan umum&lt;br /&gt;Berbeda halnya dengan okupasi atau pekerjaan yang tidak memiliki 2 aspek tersebut.&lt;br /&gt;Kode etik profesi merupakan kristalisasi atau bentuk konkritisasi dari nilai-nilai etika profesi yang dirumuskan secara tertulis.&lt;br /&gt;Yang mewujudkan kode etik prosesi adalah organisasi (masyarakat profesi itu sendiri).&lt;br /&gt;Fungsi organisasi profesi :&lt;br /&gt;1) Fungsi mengatur dirinya sendiri dengan cara menciptakan aturan.&lt;br /&gt;Contoh; profesi advokat, notaries, PPAT , tekhnik, medis, kontraktor.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-4178024252684391686?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/4178024252684391686/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/etika-profesi.html#comment-form' title='2 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/4178024252684391686'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/4178024252684391686'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/etika-profesi.html' title='Etika profesi'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>2</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-8831992639567243389</id><published>2009-06-26T07:06:00.006+07:00</published><updated>2009-07-14T01:17:50.605+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Dental'/><title type='text'>Polimerasi  Resin Komposit</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=id&amp;w=157&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SkQSsw29PCI/AAAAAAAAAFU/qqyS0nVKrr0/s1600-h/polimerisasi+3+klas+karies.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer; width: 176px; height: 200px;" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SkQSsw29PCI/AAAAAAAAAFU/qqyS0nVKrr0/s200/polimerisasi+3+klas+karies.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5351422817461943330" border="0" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;Polimerisasi adalah reaksi kimia yang terjadi ketika molekul-molekul resin dengan berat molekul kecil yang disebut monomer bergabung bersama untuk membentuk rantai panjang , molekul dengan berat molekul besar yang disebut polimer. Zat kimia yang menyebabkan reaksi polimerisasi adalah initiator dan aktivator. Aktivator adalah molekul organik yang tersusun oleh tersier amine. Aktivator mulai reaksi kimia dengan initiator untuk memulai proses pengikatan monomer bersama-sama dalam satu waktu. Rantai polimer mempunyai kelompok-kelompok kecil atom-atom mengantung pada sisi-sisinya. &lt;span class='fullpost'&gt;Ketika sisi-sisi polimer yang berdekatan berbagi elektron-elektron, mereka membentuk ikatan kovalen yang menghubungakan (cross linking) rantai-rantai bersama-sama. Ikatan silang polimer-polimer menghasilkan material yang lebih kuat, kaku daripada polimer dengan rantai tunggal.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Chemical Cure&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Resin komposit yang terpolimerisasi secara kimia, atau resin komposit self cured, terdiri dari dua pasta dalam botol atau syringe. Pasta pertama disebut&lt;span class='fullpost'&gt; sebagai base, terdiri dari komposit dan benzoyl peroksida sebagai initiator. Pasta yang lainnya disebut sebagai katalis, terdiri dari komposit dan tersier amine sebagai activator. Kedua bagian pasta ini diaduk bersamaan dan reaksi polimerisasi dimulai.&lt;br /&gt;Operator mempunyai waktu working time  yang terbatas untuk menempatkan restorasi sebelum pastanya menjadi terlalu kaku untuk dimanipulasi. Pengaduknya biasanya tersedia beserta materialnya. Karena kedua pasta harus diaduk secara manual, udara dapat mempengaruhi materialnya, menyebabkan porositas pada restorasi. Banyak klinis lebih memilih light cure karena tidak memerlukan komposisi pengadukan dan operator dapat mengontrol working time dengan memutuskan kapan mengaplikasikan sinar curing.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Light Cure&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt; Resin komposit light cured merupakan tipe resin komposit yang umum digunakan pada praktek pribadi. Intensitas sinar tampak pada gelombang sinar biru  mengaktivasi material ini. Sinar biru dengan panjang gelombang antara 400 dan 500 nm mengaktivasi diketon, dengan adanya organic amin, menyebabkan resin terpolimerisasi. Komponen ini keduanya ada dalam komposit dan tidak bereaksi sampai sinar memulai reaksi. Jika resin komposit ditempatkan terlalu tebal, ini tidak akan terpolimerisasi sempurna. Kedalaman polimerisasi tergantung pada lokasi dan warna dari restorasi. Area interproksimal mungkin membutuhkan waktu tambahan untuk terpolimerisasi sempurna karena akses yang lebih susah. Warna yang lebih gelap juga membutuhkan waktu yang lebih panjang karena sinarnya lebih mudah diabsorbsi oleh warna gelap dan tidak diteruskan melalui material semudah melalui material yang berwarna lebih terang.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Dual cure&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt; Resin komposit dual cure merupakan dua pasta yang terdiri dari initiator dan activator, dari keduanya yaitu aktivasi dengan sinar dan sedikit material dengan aktivasi kimia. Keuntungannya adalah kedua pasta dicampur bersama dan ditempatkan pada gigi,sinar curing digunakan untuk mengawali reaksi setting dan reaksi setting secara kimia berlanjut pada area yang tidak terjangkau oleh sinar, utnuk memastikan setting yang sempurna.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-8831992639567243389?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/8831992639567243389/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/polimerasi-resin-komposit.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/8831992639567243389'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/8831992639567243389'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/polimerasi-resin-komposit.html' title='Polimerasi  Resin Komposit'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SkQSsw29PCI/AAAAAAAAAFU/qqyS0nVKrr0/s72-c/polimerisasi+3+klas+karies.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-5259858115469848541</id><published>2009-06-25T02:02:00.005+07:00</published><updated>2009-07-14T01:18:42.327+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Dental'/><title type='text'>Penggunaan Etsa Asam</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=id&amp;w=157&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SkJ6GZcIr5I/AAAAAAAAAFM/BdZ5sv8wnTU/s1600-h/dokter+gigi.jpeg"&gt;&lt;img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer; width: 100px; height: 164px;" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SkJ6GZcIr5I/AAAAAAAAAFM/BdZ5sv8wnTU/s200/dokter+gigi.jpeg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5350973557596270482" border="0" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Perindungan Dentin dan Pulpa&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Sebelum aplikasi etsa asam atau penematan restorasi resin, dentin harus dilindungi dengan memberikan pelapik. Bila pelapik tidak diberikan,asam yang berfunsi sebagai etsa atau resin akan menyebabkan iritasi terhadap pulpa. Vernis umumnya tidak digunakan sebagai pelapik karena bagian monomer resin dapat melarutkan vernis, yang menghilangkan barier pelilndung. Juga bahan pelarut pada vernis mengganggu pengerasan resin.&lt;span class='fullpost'&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Basis kalsium hidroksida adalah pilihan pelapik yang dianjurkan. Bahan diaplikasikan sebagai suatu lapisan tipis di bawah resin. Dalam teknik etsa asam, asam fosfat dapat melarutkan sebagian pelapik kalsium hidroksida, mengharuskan dilakukan penambahan atau aplikasi ulang dari bahan pelapik. Bahan baru seperti monomer kaca yang diaktifkan sinar lebih disukai untuk pelapik karena bahan ini melekat pada dentin dengan amat baik. Retensi preparasi harus diperiksa dan bahan pelapik yang mungkin telah menembus daerah tersebut dibuang.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Bahan Etsa dan Bonding.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Bahan etsa yang diaplikasikan pada email menghasikan perbaikan ikatan antara permukaan email-resin. Salah satu alasannya adalah asam meninggalkan permukaan email yang bersih, yang memungkinkan resin membasahi permukaan dengan lebih baik. Asam juga menyerang permukaan email, meninggalkan permukaan yang secara mikroskopis tidak teratur. Jadi, bahan etsa membentuk lembah dan puncak pada email yang memungkinkan resin terkunci secara mekanis pada permukaan yang tidak teratur tersebut. Resin “tag” kemudian menghasilkan suatu perbaikan ikatan resin pada gigi. Panjang tag yang efektif sebagai suatu hasil etsa pada gigi anterior dewasa adalah 7-25 µm.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Asam fosfor adalah bahan etsa yang digunakan. Kosentrasi 35 hingga 50% adalah tepat. Banyak pabrik memasok asam ini dalam bentuk larutan atau gel bersama resin.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Pada akhir dari penempatan bahan &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/search/label/Dental"&gt;restorasi&lt;/a&gt;, dentin dilindungi dengan suatu pelapik kemudian larutan asam ditempatkan pada email menggunakan kapas kecil atau sikat bulu unta yang haus. Pencegahan dilakukan untuk membatasi aplikasi asam dan mencegah mengalirnya asam ke daerah-daerah email tepi yang tidak diinginkan. Isolator karet dipasang untuk membatasi aliran asam. Asam yang berbentuk gel lebih baik digunakan untuk mencegah aliran asam yang berlebihan pada email. Asam diaplikasikan dan dibiarkan tanpadiganggu kontaknya dengan email selama minimal 15-20 detik tanpa menyeka atau menghapus permukaan email. Asam dan bahan dekalsifikasi dibersihkan dengan air selama minimal 30 detik kemudian dikeringkan selama 15 detik dengan alat pengering. Alat pengering harus terjamin bebas dari kontaminasi.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Email yang teretsa harus tampak terdekalsifikasi yaitu berwarnna putih. Jika belum terlihat putih, diduga bahwa asam kurang adequate, dan asam tersebut harus diaplikasikan kembali agar menghasilkan permukaan email yang cukup untuk menerima dan mendukung perlekatan resin. bias Anya cukup dilakukan satu kali aplikasi, yang diikuti dengan cepat oleh prosedur restorasi. Namun, gigi pasien yang seriing kumur-kumur dengan fluor biasanya resisten terhadap dekalsifikasi, sehingga perlu berkali-kali dietsa. Pada beberapa keadaan, diperlukan waktu tambahan untuk menjamin dekalsifikasi email. Sebaliknya, email yang belum matang pada anak-anak lebih cepat teretsa daripada email yang matang pada dewasa.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Setelah pengetsaan asam pade email, bahan bonding diaplikasikan. Bahan bonding biasanya terdiri atas bahan matriks resin BIS-GMA yang tanpa pasi atau dengan hanya sedikit bahan pengisi(pasi). Bahan bonding dipasok dalam bentuk resin yang diaktifkan secara kimia atau resin polimerisasi sinar. Berdasarkan teorinya, resin dengan viskositas yang rendah akan mengalir segera ke daerah yang porus yang dihasilkan oleh etsa dan menjamin pembentukan tag resin yang maksimal. Jadi, bahan bonding mencapai suatu perlekatan yang baik dengan gigi. Resin komposit segera dimasukkan dan mengikat lapisan antara dari bahan bonding resin.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Keuntungan utama dari bonding adalah dapat menjamin bahwa resin membasahi gigi dengan baik dan terbentuk resin tag yang maksimal. Sebagai hasil polimerisasi, aliran komposit berkurang. Dengan berkurangnya aliranini, kemampuan resin berkurang. Walaupun ada pengurangan daya alir, yang tentu saja tidak terjadi pada sistem sinar, penggunaan bahan bonding mungkin merupakan suatu takaran pengaman yang baik bahkan untuk resin ini. Bahan bonding juga menguntungkan untuk resin pasi mikro yang agak lebih kental.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Kesimpulan tindakan yang dilakukan:&lt;br /&gt;1. Anastesi lokal.&lt;br /&gt;2. Isolasi dengan isolator karet.&lt;br /&gt;3. Preparasi, ragangan bentuk internal.&lt;br /&gt;4. Pembuangna jaringan karies.&lt;br /&gt;5. Penempatan pin (tergantung pilihan).&lt;br /&gt;6. Pemberian pelapik kalsium hidroksida di atas dentin.&lt;br /&gt;7. &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/prosedur-etsa-asam.html"&gt;Etsa asam (bila indikasi).&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;8. Pemeriksaan kembali pelapik dan dihindarkan dari daerah retensi.&lt;br /&gt;9. Penempatan bahan bonding.&lt;br /&gt;10. Penempatan restorasi dan penyelesaian.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Zulaikha D.L.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-5259858115469848541?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/5259858115469848541/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/penggunaan-etsa-asam.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/5259858115469848541'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/5259858115469848541'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/penggunaan-etsa-asam.html' title='Penggunaan Etsa Asam'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SkJ6GZcIr5I/AAAAAAAAAFM/BdZ5sv8wnTU/s72-c/dokter+gigi.jpeg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-5283793170538638008</id><published>2009-06-25T01:53:00.005+07:00</published><updated>2009-07-14T01:19:49.960+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Dental'/><title type='text'>Prosedur Etsa Asam</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=id&amp;w=157&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Suatu tambahan yang bernilai untuk retensi dari sistem resin adalah teknik etsa atau demineralisasi email antara permukaan restorasi. Teknik tersebut sangat membantu restorasi  kelas IV. Kadang-kadang restorasi kelas IV diubah dengan membuat bahu kecil atau chamfer pada email sejauh mungkin mengelilingi preparasi untuk mendapatkan email  yang lebih luas bagi prosedur etsa. Ini adalah keadaan yang melibatkan fraktur insisal, dimana retensi total dari bahan restorasi mungkin diperoleh menggunakan mekanisme etsa asam. Ada saatnya prosedur ini ditambahkan pada preparasi konvensional, untuk keberhasilan suatu restorasi.&lt;span class='fullpost'&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Keputusan untuk menggunakan &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/etsa-asam.html"&gt;etsa asam&lt;/a&gt; saja atau dalam kombinasi dengan preparasi didasarkan pada:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1.      Lokasi dan ukuran pulpa. Ini dapat mengurangi kegunaan beberapa bentuk preparasi, dengan pengecualian preparasi yang terbatas pada email.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;2.      Terlibatnya daerah insisal atau oklusal. &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/etsa-asam.html"&gt;Etsa asam &lt;/a&gt;sendiri tidak akan mampu mendukung restorasi yang menjadi subyek tekanan pengunyahan.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Etsa asam pada permukaan email sangat menguntungkan untuk retensi restorasi resin pada gigi anterior yang fraktur. Demikian juga, ini sangat menguntungkan pada jenis restorasi yang lain, misalnya kelas III dan kelas IV, sekalipun retensi hasil preparasi sendiri cukup adekuat pada keadaan tersebut. Bagaimanapun juga, system bonding dari resin yang lebih rapat terhadap email pada bagian tepi mengurangi kemungkinan pewarnaan dan kebocoran mikro di bagian tepi, terlepas dari tipe resin yang digunakan.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Indikasi Etsa Asam&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1.      Mendukung restorasi posterior kelas I dan kelas II.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;2.      Kelas III, tambahan pada retensi konvensional.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;3.      Kelas IV, sudut insisal gigi anterior.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;4.      Fraktur email, terutama insisivus sentral dan lateral atas.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;5.      Kelas V, di oklusal atau insisal email sebagai tambahan retensi.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Etsa asam tidak akan berhasil jika bagian email tidak cukup luas atau jika restorasi mendapat beban tekanan oklusal yang berat. Jadi, banyak restorasi yang besar pada insisivus bawah gagal bila etsa asam digunakan sebagai retensi utama. Dalam preparasi resin dengan retensi yang meragukan, pin sebaiknya ditambahkan sebagai pendukung.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;lebih jelasnya silahkan baca tentang Etsa Asam pada posting sebelumnya &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/etsa-asam.html"&gt;klik disini&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Zulaikha D.L.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-5283793170538638008?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/5283793170538638008/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/prosedur-etsa-asam.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/5283793170538638008'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/5283793170538638008'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/prosedur-etsa-asam.html' title='Prosedur Etsa Asam'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-7517485814688674844</id><published>2009-06-25T01:47:00.004+07:00</published><updated>2009-07-14T01:19:54.610+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Law'/><title type='text'>PP No.12 Tahun 2004</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=id&amp;w=157&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: center;"&gt;PERATURAN PEMERINTAH REPUBLIK INDONESIA&lt;br /&gt;NOMOR 12 TAHUN 2004&lt;br /&gt;TENTANG&lt;br /&gt;PERUBAHAN ATAS&lt;br /&gt;PERATURAN PEMERINTAH NOMOR 45 TAHUN 1995&lt;br /&gt;TENTANG PENYELENGGARAAN KEGIATAN DI BIDANG PASAR MODAL&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;PRESIDEN REPUBLIK INDONESIA,&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Menimbang :&lt;br /&gt;a. bahwa dalam rangka meningkatkan kinerja Perusahaan Efek  melalui peningkatan permodalan Perusahaan Efek dan untuk menjamin hak-hak kepemilikan Perusahaan Efek pada Bursa Efek, maka perlu dilakukan perubahan terhadap Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 45 Tahun 1995 tentang Penyelenggaraan Kegiatan di Bidang Pasar Modal;&lt;span class='fullpost'&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;b. bahwa berdasarkan pertimbangan sebagaimana dimaksud dalam huruf a, dipandang perlu menetapkan Peraturan Pemerintah tentang Perubahan Atas Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 45 Tahun 1995 tentang Penyelenggaraan Kegiatan di&lt;br /&gt;Bidang Pasar Modal;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Mengingat :&lt;br /&gt;1. Pasal 5 ayat (1), Pasal 20 ayat (1), dan Pasal 33 Undang-Undang Dasar 1945 sebagaimana telah diubah dengan Perubahan Keempat Undang-Undang Dasar 1945;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;2. Undang-undang Nomor 8 Tahun 1995 tentang Pasar Modal (Lembaran Negara Republik Indonesia Tahun 1995 Nomor 64, Tambahan Lembaran Negara Nomor 3608);&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;3. Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 45 Tahun 1995 tentang Penyelenggaraan Kegiatan di Bidang Pasar Modal (Lembaran Negara Republik Indonesia Tahun 1995 Nomor 86, Tambahan Lembaran Negara Nomor 3617);&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;MEMUTUSKAN:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Menetapkan:&lt;br /&gt;PERATURAN PEMERINTAH TENTANG PERUBAHAN ATAS PERATURAN PERMERINTAH NOMOR 45 TAHUN 1995 TENTANG PENYELENGGARAAN KEGIATAN DI BIDANG PASAR MODAL.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Pasal I&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Mengubah ketentuan Pasal 8 dalam Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 45 Tahun 1995 tentang Penyelenggaraan Kegiatan di Bidang Pasar Modal, sehingga keseluruhan Pasal 8 berbunyi sebagai berikut :&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;“Pasal 8&lt;br /&gt;(1) Perusahaan Efek yang telah menjadi pemegang saham Bursa Efek tetapi kemudian tidak lagi memenuhi syarat untuk menjadi Anggota Bursa Efek atau tidak lagi menjadi Anggota Bursa Efek, wajib mengalihkan saham Bursa Efek yang dimilikinya kepada Perusahaan Efek lain yang memenuhi persyaratan sebagai anggota Bursa Efek atau mengajukan permintaan penjualan saham dimaksud kepada Bursa Efek, dalam jangka waktu selambat-lambatnya 12 (dua belas) bulan sejak saat&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(2) Perusahaan Efek tidak lagi memenuhi syarat sebagai Anggota Bursa Efek atau tidak lagi menjadi Anggota Bursa Efek. Dalam hal kepemilikan saham belum beralih dalam jangka waktu sebagaimana dimaksud dalam ayat (1) atau Perusahaan&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(3) Efek mengajukan permintaan penjualan saham kepada Bursa Efek, Bursa Efek melelang saham dimaksud pada tingkat harga terbaik atau membeli kembali saham tersebut pada harga nominal.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(4) Pelelangan dan pembelian kembali saham sebagaimana dimaksud dalam ayat (2), dilakukan dalam jangka waktu selambat-lambatnya 6 (enam) bulan terhitung sejak lewatnya jangka waktu sebagaimana dimaksud dalam ayat (1) atau sejak Bursa Efek menerima pengajuan permintaan penjualan.&lt;br /&gt;Dalam hal Bursa Efek memutuskan untuk melelang saham sebagaimana dimaksud dalam ayat (2), namun dalam jangka waktu 6 (enam) bulan sebagaimana dimaksud dalam ayat (3) saham dimaksud tidak terjual, maka Bursa Efek membeli saham  tersebut pada harga nominal.”&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Pasal II&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Peraturan Pemerintah ini mulai berlaku pada tanggal diundangkan.&lt;br /&gt;Agar setiap orang mengetahuinya, memerintahkan pengundangan Peraturan Pemerintah ini dengan penempatannya dalam Lembaran Negara Republik Indonesia.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Ditetapkan di Jakarta&lt;br /&gt;pada tanggal 2 Maret 2004&lt;br /&gt;PRESIDEN REPUBLIK INDONESIA,&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;ttd.&lt;br /&gt;MEGAWATI&lt;br /&gt;SOEKARNOPUTRI&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: right;"&gt;Diundangkan di Jakarta&lt;br /&gt;pada tanggal 2 Maret 2004&lt;br /&gt;SEKRETARIS NEGARA REPUBLIK INDONESIA,&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;ttd.&lt;br /&gt;BAMBANG KESOWO&lt;br /&gt;LEMBARAN NEGARA REPUBLIK INDONESIA TAHUN 2004 NOMOR 27&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Salinan sesuai dengan&lt;br /&gt;aslinya&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Deputi Sekretaris&lt;br /&gt;Kabinet&lt;br /&gt;Bidang Hukum dan&lt;br /&gt;Perundang-undangan,&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;RGS Mitra Page 4 of 5 Page 4 of 5&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: center;"&gt;PENJELASAN&lt;br /&gt;ATAS&lt;br /&gt;PERATURAN PEMERINTAH REPUBLIK INDONESIA&lt;br /&gt;NOMOR 12 TAHUN 2004&lt;br /&gt;TENTANG&lt;br /&gt;PERUBAHAN ATAS&lt;br /&gt;PERATURAN PEMERINTAH NOMOR 45 TAHUN 1995&lt;br /&gt;TENTANG PENYELENGGARAAN KEGIATAN&lt;br /&gt;DI BIDANG PASAR MODAL&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;UMUM&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Dalam rangka menciptakan Pasar Modal yang wajar, teratur dan efisien serta&lt;br /&gt;mampu bersaing dalam era perdagangan bebas, diperlukan upaya untuk&lt;br /&gt;meningkatkan kinerja Perusahaan Efek antara lain kualitas pelayanan, kualitas&lt;br /&gt;sumber daya manusia, ketaatan terhadap peraturan dan kualitas sistem back&lt;br /&gt;office. Peningkatan kinerja Perusahaan Efek ini dapat dilakukan dengan&lt;br /&gt;memperkuat kondisi keuangan dan kemampuan operasional Perusahaan Efek&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;melalui peningkatan permodalan Perusahaan Efek.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Peningkatan permodalan Perusahaan Efek dimaksud sejalan dengan General&lt;br /&gt;Principles International Organization of Securities Commision (IOSCO), yang&lt;br /&gt;menyatakan bahwa harus ada peningkatan secara terus menerus tentang&lt;br /&gt;persyaratan untuk menjadi Perusahaan Efek yang memperhatikan prinsip&lt;br /&gt;kehati-hatian, seperti struktur permodalan awal dan pemeliharaannya&lt;br /&gt;sehubungan dengan perkembangan potensi risiko yang ditanggung oleh&lt;br /&gt;Perusahaan Efek.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Dengan adanya peningkatan permodalan bagi Perusahaan Efek, maka untuk&lt;br /&gt;melindungi kepentingan Perusahaan Efek yang saat ini telah memiliki saham&lt;br /&gt;Bursa Efek, maka jangka waktu pengalihan saham Bursa Efek yang&lt;br /&gt;dimilikinya kepada pihak lain perlu diperpanjang.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;PASAL DEMI PASAL&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Pasal I&lt;br /&gt;Pasal 8&lt;br /&gt;Cukup jelas&lt;br /&gt;Pasal II&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;RGS Mitra Page 5 of 5 Page 5 of 5&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Cukup jelas&lt;br /&gt;TAMBAHAN LEMBARAN NEGARA REPUBLIK INDONESIA NOMOR 4372&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-7517485814688674844?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/7517485814688674844/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/pp-no12-tahun-2004.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/7517485814688674844'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/7517485814688674844'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/pp-no12-tahun-2004.html' title='PP No.12 Tahun 2004'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-8222722247088271047</id><published>2009-06-25T01:08:00.003+07:00</published><updated>2009-07-14T01:20:51.224+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Dental'/><title type='text'>Desain Kavitas</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=id&amp;w=157&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SkJ0kibJZKI/AAAAAAAAAFE/ad6pCdBmKoU/s1600-h/gigi+lucu.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer; width: 127px; height: 127px;" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SkJ0kibJZKI/AAAAAAAAAFE/ad6pCdBmKoU/s200/gigi+lucu.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5350967478334350498" border="0" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Restorasi individual&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Klas 1&lt;br /&gt;Pada umumnya dipergunakan restorasi amalgam. Akhir-akhir ini semen komposit dianggap tidak lagi cocok  untuk digunakan merestorasi kavitas oklusal, tetapi untuk kavitas yang kecil  yang berada ada permukaan oklusal  yang cukup sehat, tetap dapat dilakukan restorasi dengan komposit etsa asam  asalkan fisura yang masih ada juga direstorasi pada saat yang bersamaan.  Dengan makin membaiknya sifat fisik dari resin komposit, bahan ini dapat dipertimbangkan kegunaannya untuk kavitas yang besar. Dewasa ini  resin komposit hanya cocok digunakan untuk restorasi kavitas lingual  pada gigi yang sudah dirawat saluran akar.&lt;span class='fullpost'&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Klas II&lt;br /&gt;Pada umumnya dipergunakan restorasi amalgam.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Klas III&lt;br /&gt;Semen komposit adalah bahan pilihan  baik berupa bahan tumpat konvensional atau teknik etsa asam.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Klas IV&lt;br /&gt;Restorasi resin komposit dengan etsa asam merupakan cara yang paling sering digunakan.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Semen komposit mulai diperkenalkan pada akhir tahun 1960-an. Terdiri dari matriks resin dan pengisi organik.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Eccles,J.D.The Conservation of the Teeth.2nd Ed. Oxford:Blackwell Sc.P.Ltd.1994; 75-124&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-8222722247088271047?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/8222722247088271047/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/desain-kavitas.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/8222722247088271047'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/8222722247088271047'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/desain-kavitas.html' title='Desain Kavitas'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SkJ0kibJZKI/AAAAAAAAAFE/ad6pCdBmKoU/s72-c/gigi+lucu.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-6411957798884989545</id><published>2009-06-25T00:57:00.004+07:00</published><updated>2009-07-14T01:21:09.139+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Dental'/><title type='text'>Konservasi Komposit</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=id&amp;w=157&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SkJqPcCp8II/AAAAAAAAAE0/EXsoqU-x21w/s1600-h/resin+komposit.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer; width: 150px; height: 200px;" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SkJqPcCp8II/AAAAAAAAAE0/EXsoqU-x21w/s200/resin+komposit.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5350956120727482498" border="0" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/search/label/Dental"&gt;KOMPOSIT&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Komposit mengandung 3 komponen:&lt;br /&gt;1. Filler&lt;br /&gt;Kebanyakan komposit memiliki filler dengan ukuran diameter rata-rata 0,5-3µm (partikel fine) atau 0,04µm (partikel microfine). Pecahan dari partikel memiliki diameter 0,04µm, berubah-ubah berat dari beberapa persen hingga 35%. Persentase volume partikel filler lebih rendah dibanding persentase berat, karena density dari filler lebih tinggi jika dibandingkan dengan density dari polymer matrix. Komposit dibagi 2 kelompok, microhybrid composite dan microfilled composite. Microhybrid composite mengandung &lt;span class='fullpost'&gt;campuran dari partikel filler fine dan microfine dengan 84% berat merupakan filler. Partikel- partikel filler microfine tepat di antara partikel-partikel filler fine, menghasilkan total konsentrasi filler 70% volume. Microfilled composite mengandung microfine filler dengan permukaan yang sangat luas. Hanya 35%-50% volume dari partikel ini dapat digunakan beserta resin matrix dan masih menghasilkan pasta yang viskositasnya dapat diterima. Beberapa microfilled composite menggunakan filler-filler yang partikel-partikel polimer dikuatkan dengan partikel-partikel microfine, yang kemudian dicampur dengan resin matrix. Penguatan partikel-partikel filler kemungkinan sebesar 10-20µm. Produk-produk hasil campuran ini memperbolehkan pemasukan dari filler-filler microfilled lebih banyak dan menghasilkan pasta dengan viskositas yang pantas.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Komposisi filler berbeda-beda. Quartz, lithium aluminium silicate, barium, stronsium, zinc, atau ytterbium glasses digunakan untuk komposisi filler fine. Komposisi filler microfine adalah partikel colloidal silica. Filler fine mangandung atom barium, stronsium, zinc, atau ytterium yang radiopaque dan radiopacity menjadi proporsional dengan fraksi volume dari filler. Quartz (crystalline silica) dan lithium aluminium silicate tidak radiopaque. Penentuan penggunaan komposit adalah radiopaque atau tidak. Penggunaan komposit radiopaque untuk restorasi gigi-gigi posterior.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;2. Resin Matrix&lt;br /&gt;Kebanyakan resin biasanya didasarkan pada oligomer dimethacrylate (BIS-GMA) atau urethane dimethacrylate (UDMA). BIS-GMA dan UDMA adalah cairan pekat dengan ikatan molekuler monomer yang rendah (dimethacrylate) ditambah untuk mengontrol konsistensi pasta komposit. Kedua oligomer dan ikatan molekuler monomer yang rendah digambarkan sebagai ikatan atom C rangkap dua yang bereaksi untuk mengubah keduanya menjadi polimer.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;3. &lt;a href="http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/search/label/Dental"&gt;Silane Coupling Agent&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Untuk mendapatkan sebuah ikatan yang bagus antara inorganic filler dan resin matrix , diberikan silane pada permukaan filler di mana silane memiliki kelompok yang bereaksi dengan filler inorganik dan kelompok lain bereaksi dengan matrix organik.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;DAPUS:&lt;br /&gt;1. Craig RG, Powers JM, Wataha JC. 2000. Dental Materials Properties and Manipulation. 7th ed. Missouri: Mosby, Inc. pp: 60-61&lt;br /&gt;2. Hatrick CD, Eakle WS, Bird WF. 2003. Dental Materials Clinical Applications for Dental Assistants and Dental Hygienists. Missouri: Elsevier science&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Sumber: Zulaikha D.L.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-6411957798884989545?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/6411957798884989545/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/konservasi-komposit.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/6411957798884989545'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/6411957798884989545'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/konservasi-komposit.html' title='Konservasi Komposit'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SkJqPcCp8II/AAAAAAAAAE0/EXsoqU-x21w/s72-c/resin+komposit.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-9063609992213658334</id><published>2009-06-24T14:04:00.005+07:00</published><updated>2009-07-14T01:21:52.419+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Dental'/><title type='text'>Komposit dan Kompomer</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=id&amp;w=157&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;KOMPOSIT&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Semen komposit mulai diperkenalkan pada akhir tahun 1960-an. Terdiri dari matriks resin dan pengisi organic. Bahan pengisi akan berfungsi mengurangi muai panas dan meningkatkan ketahanan bahan terhadap abrasi. Resin yang digunakan pada kebanyakan komposit adalah berdasarkan pada produk reaksi dari bisfenol Adan glisidil metakrilat.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Bahan komposit dapat didefinisikan sebagai gabungan 2 atau lebih bahan berbeda dengan sifat-sifat yang unggul atau lebih baik daripada bahan itu sendiri. Contoh bahan komposit alamiah adalah&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt; email gigi dan dentin.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Komposit dapat ditahan dalam kavitas baik dengan retensi mekanis konvensional di dalam dentin atau dengan ikatan mikro-mekanis dari tag resin di dalam email, bila email dietsa dengan asam. Kemampuan komposit etsa-asam untuk berikatan dengan email ini, sudah dimanfaatkan untuk:&lt;br /&gt;- Splinting gigi-gigi yang goyang&lt;br /&gt;- Memasang jembatan Rochette atau braket ortodonsi&lt;br /&gt;- Memodifikasi kontur gigi untuk membantu retensi geligi tiruan&lt;br /&gt;- Memperbaiki tampilan dari gigi-gigi yang bentuknya kurang baik atau gigi dengan perubahan warna intrinsic&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Manipulasi dari komposit ini umumnya bervariasi. Bahan dipasarkan dalam dua bentuk, bahan yang diaktifkan dengan cahaya dan bahan yang diaktifkan secara kimia.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Untuk bahan resin yang diaktifkan dengan cahaya, bahan dasarnya diaduk dan diaplikasikan ke gigi, ditahan pada tempatnya dengan matriks dan dipolimerisasi dengan menggunakan cahaya yang kuat. Bahan-bahan ini mempunyai kelebihan yaitu waktu kerjanya tidak terbatas sehingga memungkinkan matriks dipasang dengan tanpa tergesa-gesa, tetapi harus digunakan dengan hati-hati karena bila bahan ini terlalu tebal pengerasannya tidak dapat diandalkan.&lt;br /&gt;Resin yang diaktifkan secara kimia mempunyai waktu kerja yang terbatas dan dewasa ini dipasarkan dalam tiga tipe system yaitu :&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;- Sistem dua adonan : polimerisasi terjadi bila adonan dicampur dan diaduk bersama&lt;br /&gt;- Adonan yang mengandung semua bahan kecuali aktivator yang berbentuk larutan terpisah dan diaduk dengan adonan sebelum digunakan&lt;br /&gt;- System bubuk-cairan : bubuk mengandung bahan pengisi anorganik dan activator, cairan mengandung monomer an komponen-kompone lainnya&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Pengadukan harus dilakukan sesuai dengan instruksi pabrik pembuatnya. Bila digunakan teknik etsa asam, tepi email dari kavitas harus dietsa dengan larutan asam fosfor selama satu menit. Bahan etsa harus dicuci dengan hati-hati dengan menggunakan semprotan udara selama 10 detik dan daerah tersebut dikeringkan dengan semprotan udara yang bebas minyak. Permukaan yang dietsa harus dijaga agar tidak tersentuh dan harus bebas dari semua kontaminasi.resin organik.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Untuk mendapatkan komposit yang memiliki sifat mekanik yang baik, sebuah ikatan yang kuat harus terjadi antara matriks resin organic dan pengisi anorganik. Ikatan ini dicapai dengan melindungi partikel pengisi dengan silane coupling agent, yang tidak hanya menam,bah kekuatan komposit, tapi juga mengurangi kepadatan dan absorpsi air.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Komposit biasanya dibagi menjadi tiga tipe berdasarkan ukuran, jumlah, dan komposisis pengisis anorganik : (1) komposit konvensional, (2) komposit mikrofil, (3) komposit hybrid. Perubahan yang terkini dari komposisi komposit telah dihasilkan dalam kategori tipe hybrid yang lain, termasuk flowable, packable, dan komposit nanofil.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Matriks resin. Kebanyakan bahan komposit kedokteran gigi menggunakan monomer yang merupakan diakrilat aromatic atau alipatik. Bis-GMA, urethane dimetakrilat (UEDMA), dan trietilen glikol dimetakrilat adalah dimetakrilat yang umum digunakan dalam komposit gigi. Meskipun sifat mekanik resin bis-GMA lebih unggul dibandingkan resin akrilik, bahan trsebut tidak mengikat struktur gigi lebih efektif. Karena itu, pengerutan polimerisasi dan perubahan dimensi termal masih merupakan penting termasuk resin yang telah diisi.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Partikel bahan pengisi. Dimasukkannya partikel pengisi ke dalam suatu matriks secara nyata meningkatkan sifat bahan matriks bila partikel pengisi benar-benar berikatan dengan matriks. Bila tidak, partikel bahan pengisi dapat melemahkan bahan. Karena pentingnya bahan pengisi yang berikatan kuat, jelas terlihat bahwa penggunaan bahan pengisi tambahan sangatlah diperlukan untuk keberhasilan suatu bahan komposit. Jumlah pengisi yang dapat dimasukkan ke dalam matriks resin umumnya dipengaruhi oleh daerah permukaan pengisi.&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;KOMPOMER&lt;br /&gt; Resin multifungsi lain yang juga popular adalah asam poliakrilik dimana hidroksietil metakrilat (HEMA) telah dicangkokkan. Asam poliakrilik termodifikasi tersebut (PAA)  digunakan dalam semen ionomer kaca yang dikeraskan dengan sinar. Selama pemaparan, polimer radikal bebas dirangsang, menyebabkan kelompok metakrilat bereaksi. Reaksi yang mengikat silang molekul PAA mendorong reaksi pengerasan awal. Setelah resin ini, gugus karboksilat terus bereaksi dengan partikel kaca melalui reaksi asam basa. Selama reaksi ini, PAA melepaskan ion-ion hydrogen dan rantai PAA menjadi bermuatan negative. Namun, peningkatan muatan negative ini diimbangi dengan pelepasan kation dari kaca. Kation-kation ini seperti Ca2+  dan Al3+, membentuk ikatan ionic antar-rantai yang sekarang menjadi terikat silang secara ion. Selain itu, rantai PAA bermuatan negative akan membentuk ikatan dengan jaringan gigi yang mengandung kation Ca2+.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt; Dengan mengamati molekul PAA yang termodifikasi ini, terlihat bahwa begitu gugus metakrilat meningkat, jumlah gugus karboksilat menurun. Ini penting karena gugus karboksilat yang lebih sedikit akan mengurangi luas reaksi asam basa dan melemahkan interaksi email-dentin. Jadi, ionomer kaca pengerasan sinar dapat digambarkan sebagai suatu kombinasi dari polimerisasi tambahan dan reaktivitas asam basa, menghasilkan apa yang disebut bahan hybrid. Istilah yang lebih berarti untuk golongan bahan ini adalah kompomer, karena mengkombinasikan sifat bahan komposit dengan ionomer kaca.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Kompomer dapat dideskribsikan secara tepat sebagai komposit yang telah ditambahkan dengan komponen glass ionomer. Terutama light cured, kompomer mudah digunakan dan didapat karena sifat super handling. Secara keseluruhan, sifat fisiknya begitu istimewa dibandingkan dengan glass ionomer tradisional dan RMGIs, tapi lebih rendah daripada komposit itu. Indikasinya untuk penggunaan klinis terbatas. Walaupun kompomer dapat melepaskan lorida, hasilnya tidak menopang di tahap konstan, dan kariogenitasnya masih dipertanyakan.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-9063609992213658334?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/9063609992213658334/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/komposit-dan-kompomer.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/9063609992213658334'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/9063609992213658334'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/komposit-dan-kompomer.html' title='Komposit dan Kompomer'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-3478031419561510993</id><published>2009-06-24T02:37:00.007+07:00</published><updated>2009-07-14T01:22:20.550+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Dental'/><title type='text'>Etsa Asam</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="translator"&gt; &lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=id&amp;w=157&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a style="font-family: georgia;" onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SkEx12d4DgI/AAAAAAAAAEo/FU1mFURpFfM/s1600-h/0060-0805-2019-4049_Cartoon_Tooth_Brushing_Its_Teeth_clipart_image.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer; width: 185px; height: 200px;" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SkEx12d4DgI/AAAAAAAAAEo/FU1mFURpFfM/s200/0060-0805-2019-4049_Cartoon_Tooth_Brushing_Its_Teeth_clipart_image.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5350612633516510722" border="0" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-family:times new roman;"&gt;TUJUAN&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify; font-family: georgia;"&gt; Pengerutan polimerisasi terjadi ketika resin metakrilat mengeras, oleh karena itu kebocoran tepi restorasi lebih mungkin terjadi pada restorasi resin dibandingkan bahan jenis lain.  Bahan komposit yang ada saat ini tidak memiliki kemampuan untuk menahan kebocoran tepi, sehingga kebocoran cairan mulut sering terjadi pada bagian yang berdekatan dengan restorasi. Secara singkat tujuan etsa asam adalah meningkatkan perlekatan mekanis dan menutup tepi. Prosedur ini memperluas penggunaan bahan restorasi berbasis resin karena memberikan ikatan yang kuat antara resin dan email serta memecahkan masalah yang dihadapi oleh restorasi berbasis resin yaitu &lt;span class='fullpost'&gt;perubahan warna di bagian tepi karena kebocoran tepi restorasi yang berhadapan.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-family:times new roman;"&gt;PENGGUNAAN&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify; font-family: georgia;"&gt; Teknik etsa asam membentuk basis bagi kebanyakan prosedur inovatif kedokteran gigi, seperti retensi logam berikatan resin, vinir berlapis porselen dan braket ortodontik.1 Secara sistematis, ada 4 hal yang perlu diperhatikan dalam melakukan etsa asam : metode, waktu, konsentrasi asam, dan tipe asam yang digunakan.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify; font-family: georgia;"&gt;1. Metode.&lt;br /&gt;Asam fosforik dapat diaplikasikan dalam bentuk gel dengan menggunakan kuas atau injeksi.  Kuas lebih dianjurkan karena ujung yang baik dari kuas akan mengikatkan asam ke enamel pada preparasi chamfer-shoulder dan bulu kuas yang halus akan mencegah gosokan kasar yang nantinya akan menghasilkan penurunan retensi akibat fraktur dari enamel interstitial yang mengelilingi pori-pori yang sangat kecil (micropore).2&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify; font-family: georgia;"&gt;2. Waktu.&lt;br /&gt;Waktu yang digunakan untuk etsa asam fosforik tidaklah lama, normalnya 10-60 detik.3 Waktu yang lebih lama tidak akan menambah kekuatan ikatan. Namun, lamanya pemberian etsa bervariasi tergantung riwayat gigi yang dietsa. Aplikasi dapat lebih lama (1 menit atau lebih) pada gigi susu dan gigi yang mengalami fluorosis karena keduanya bersifat melawan prosedur etsa.2&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify; font-family: georgia;"&gt;3. Konsentrasi asam.&lt;br /&gt;Konsentrasi 30%-50% adalah yang paling efektif dan banyak terdapat di pasaran.1,3 Konsentrasi 37% merupakan konsentrasi terbanyak di pasaran. Konsentrasi lebih dari 50% dapat menyebabkan pembentukan monokalsium fosfat monohidrat pada permukaan teretsa yang menghambat kelarutan lebih lanjut.1&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify; font-family: georgia;"&gt;4. Tipe asam yang digunakan.&lt;br /&gt;Ada 2 macam tipe asam yang dapat digunakan untuk etsa yaitu gel dan larutan encer. Tipe larutan encer mudah untuk digunakan tetapi sangat sulit untuk mengontrol flow cairan.2,3 Gel fosforik dengan viskositas tinggi seperti Caulk Gel Etchant atau Ultradent Etching Gel lebih mudah untuk dikontrol secara klinis.2 Dalam pembuatannya, gel tersebut seringkali dibuat dengan menambah silika koloidal atau butiran polimer ke dalam asam.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify; font-family: georgia;"&gt;Pada umumnya etsa dipasok dalam bentuk gel agar peletakan bahan dapat lebih dikendalikan. Selama peletakan usahakan agar gelembung udara antara kedua bahan tidak masuk  karena jika ada gelembung udara daerah tersebut tidak dapat teretsa. 1&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify; font-family: georgia;"&gt; Setelah dietsa, asam harus dibilas dengan air selama 20 detik, kemudian enamel dikeringkan. Tanda keberhasilan etsa tampak pada permukaan enamel yang berwarna putih salju. Enamel ini harus dijaga agar tetap kering sampai resin diletakkan, tujuannya untuk membentuk ikatan yang baik. Kontak dengan saliva atau darah misalnya, walaupun hanya sebentar dapat menghalangi pembentukan resin tag yang efektif dan mengurangi kekuatan ikatan. Jika terjadi kontaminasi, kontaminan harus segera dibersihkan, enamel dikeringkan serta dietsa kembali selama 10 detik (lebih singkat dari waktu etsa awal). 1,3&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify; font-family: georgia;"&gt;1. Anusavice, K.J. 2004. Buku Ajar Ilmu Bahan Kedokteran Gigi Edisi 10. Jakarta : Penerbit Buku Kedokteran EGC. Hlm 251-253.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify; font-family: georgia;"&gt;2. Jordan, R.E. 1992. Esthetic Composite Bonding Techniques and Materials 2nd Ed. St.Louis, Missouri : Mosby Year Book. Page 38.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify; font-family: georgia;"&gt;3. Mc Cabe, J.F. 1990. Applied Dental Materials 7th Ed. Oxford : Blackwell Scientific Publications. Page 157-159&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Sumber : Zulaikha D.L. FKG Unair&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-3478031419561510993?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/3478031419561510993/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/etsa-asam.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/3478031419561510993'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/3478031419561510993'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/etsa-asam.html' title='Etsa Asam'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SkEx12d4DgI/AAAAAAAAAEo/FU1mFURpFfM/s72-c/0060-0805-2019-4049_Cartoon_Tooth_Brushing_Its_Teeth_clipart_image.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-4533262835234661482</id><published>2009-06-22T08:34:00.005+07:00</published><updated>2009-07-14T01:24:33.778+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Law'/><title type='text'>ICJ Opinion about fundamental change of circumstances of gabcikovo case</title><content type='html'>&lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=en&amp;w=160&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Hungary further argued that it was entitled to invoke a number&lt;br /&gt;of events which, cumulatively, would have constituted a fundamental&lt;br /&gt;change of circumstances. In this respect it specified profound changes of&lt;br /&gt;a political nature, the Project's diminishing economic viability, the&lt;br /&gt;progress of environmental knowledge and the development of new norms&lt;br /&gt;and prescriptions of international environmental law (see paragraph 95&lt;br /&gt;above).&lt;span class='fullpost'&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The Court recalls that, in the Fislzrries Jurisdiction case, it stated that&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"Article 62 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, . . .&lt;br /&gt;may in many respects be considered as a codification of existing customary&lt;br /&gt;law on the subject of the termination of a treaty relationship&lt;br /&gt;on account of change of circumstances" (I. C. J. Reports 1973, p. 63,&lt;br /&gt;para. 36).&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The prevailing political situation was certainly relevant for the conclusion&lt;br /&gt;of the 1977 Treaty. But the Court will recall that the Treaty provided&lt;br /&gt;for a joint investment programme for the production of energy, the control&lt;br /&gt;of floods and the improvement of navigation on the Danube. In the&lt;br /&gt;Court's view, the prevalent political conditions were thus not so closely&lt;br /&gt;linked to the object and purpose of the Treaty that they constituted an&lt;br /&gt;essential basis of the consent of the parties and, in changing, radically&lt;br /&gt;altered the extent of the obligations still to be performed. The same holds&lt;br /&gt;good for the economic system in force at the time of the conclusion of the&lt;br /&gt;1977 Treaty. Besides, even though the estimated profitability of the&lt;br /&gt;Project might have appeared less in 1992 than in 1977, it does not appear&lt;br /&gt;from the record before the Court that it was bound to diminish to such&lt;br /&gt;an extent that the treaty obligations of the parties would have been radically&lt;br /&gt;transformed as a result.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The Court does not consider that new developments in the state of environmental knowledge and of environmental law can be said to&lt;br /&gt;have been completely unforeseen. What is more, the formulation of&lt;br /&gt;Articles 15, 19 and 20, designed to accommodate change, made it possible&lt;br /&gt;for the parties to take account of such developments and to apply&lt;br /&gt;them when implementing those treaty provisions.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The changed circumstances advanced by Hungary are, in the Court's&lt;br /&gt;view, not of such a nature, either individually or collectively, that their&lt;br /&gt;effect would radically transform the extent of the obligations still to be&lt;br /&gt;performed in order to accomplish the Project. A fundamental change of&lt;br /&gt;circumstances must have been unforeseen; the existence of the circumstances&lt;br /&gt;at the time of the Treaty's conclusion must have constituted an&lt;br /&gt;essential basis of the consent of the parties to be bound by the Treaty.&lt;br /&gt;The negative and conditional wording of Article 62 of the Vienna Convention&lt;br /&gt;on the Law of Treaties is a clear indication moreover that the&lt;br /&gt;stability of treaty relations requires that the plea of fundamental change&lt;br /&gt;of circumstances be applied only in exceptional cases.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-4533262835234661482?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/4533262835234661482/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/icj-opinion-about-fundamental-change-of.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/4533262835234661482'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/4533262835234661482'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/icj-opinion-about-fundamental-change-of.html' title='ICJ Opinion about fundamental change of circumstances of gabcikovo case'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-5685697921536441332</id><published>2009-06-22T08:34:00.003+07:00</published><updated>2009-07-05T22:39:28.755+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Law'/><title type='text'>ICJ Opinion about fundamental change of circumstances of gabcikovo case</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Hungary further argued that it was entitled to invoke a number&lt;br /&gt;of events which, cumulatively, would have constituted a fundamental&lt;br /&gt;change of circumstances. In this respect it specified profound changes of&lt;br /&gt;a political nature, the Project's diminishing economic viability, the&lt;br /&gt;progress of environmental knowledge and the development of new norms&lt;br /&gt;and prescriptions of international environmental law (see paragraph 95&lt;br /&gt;above).&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The Court recalls that, in the Fislzrries Jurisdiction case, it stated that&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"Article 62 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, . . .&lt;span class='fullpost'&gt;&lt;br /&gt;may in many respects be considered as a codification of existing customary&lt;br /&gt;law on the subject of the termination of a treaty relationship&lt;br /&gt;on account of change of circumstances" (I. C. J. Reports 1973, p. 63,&lt;br /&gt;para. 36).&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The prevailing political situation was certainly relevant for the conclusion&lt;br /&gt;of the 1977 Treaty. But the Court will recall that the Treaty provided&lt;br /&gt;for a joint investment programme for the production of energy, the control&lt;br /&gt;of floods and the improvement of navigation on the Danube. In the&lt;br /&gt;Court's view, the prevalent political conditions were thus not so closely&lt;br /&gt;linked to the object and purpose of the Treaty that they constituted an&lt;br /&gt;essential basis of the consent of the parties and, in changing, radically&lt;br /&gt;altered the extent of the obligations still to be performed. The same holds&lt;br /&gt;good for the economic system in force at the time of the conclusion of the&lt;br /&gt;1977 Treaty. Besides, even though the estimated profitability of the&lt;br /&gt;Project might have appeared less in 1992 than in 1977, it does not appear&lt;br /&gt;from the record before the Court that it was bound to diminish to such&lt;br /&gt;an extent that the treaty obligations of the parties would have been radically&lt;br /&gt;transformed as a result.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The Court does not consider that new developments in the state of environmental knowledge and of environmental law can be said to&lt;br /&gt;have been completely unforeseen. What is more, the formulation of&lt;br /&gt;Articles 15, 19 and 20, designed to accommodate change, made it possible&lt;br /&gt;for the parties to take account of such developments and to apply&lt;br /&gt;them when implementing those treaty provisions.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The changed circumstances advanced by Hungary are, in the Court's&lt;br /&gt;view, not of such a nature, either individually or collectively, that their&lt;br /&gt;effect would radically transform the extent of the obligations still to be&lt;br /&gt;performed in order to accomplish the Project. A fundamental change of&lt;br /&gt;circumstances must have been unforeseen; the existence of the circumstances&lt;br /&gt;at the time of the Treaty's conclusion must have constituted an&lt;br /&gt;essential basis of the consent of the parties to be bound by the Treaty.&lt;br /&gt;The negative and conditional wording of Article 62 of the Vienna Convention&lt;br /&gt;on the Law of Treaties is a clear indication moreover that the&lt;br /&gt;stability of treaty relations requires that the plea of fundamental change&lt;br /&gt;of circumstances be applied only in exceptional cases.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-5685697921536441332?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/5685697921536441332/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/icj-opinion-about-fundamental-change-of_22.html#comment-form' title='1 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/5685697921536441332'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/5685697921536441332'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/icj-opinion-about-fundamental-change-of_22.html' title='ICJ Opinion about fundamental change of circumstances of gabcikovo case'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>1</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-198161159699879141</id><published>2009-06-22T08:25:00.002+07:00</published><updated>2009-07-05T22:44:36.154+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Law'/><title type='text'>ICJ Opinion about Impossibility of Performace of gabcikovo case</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Hungary also relied on the principle of the impossibility of performance&lt;br /&gt;as reflected in Article 61 of the Vienna Convention on the Law&lt;br /&gt;of Treaties. Hungary's interpretation of the wording of Article 61 is,&lt;br /&gt;however, not in conformity with the terms of that Article, nor with the&lt;br /&gt;intentions of the Diplomatic Conference which adopted the Convention.&lt;br /&gt;Article 6 1, paragraph 1, requires the "permanent disappearance or&lt;br /&gt;destruction of an object indispensable for the execution" of the treaty to&lt;br /&gt;justify the termination of a treaty on grounds of impossibility of performance.&lt;br /&gt;During the conference, &lt;span class='fullpost'&gt;a proposal was made to extend the scope of&lt;br /&gt;the article by including in it cases such as the impossibility to make certain&lt;br /&gt;payments because of serious financial difficulties (Ojjciul Records of&lt;br /&gt;the United Nations Conjerence on the Luiv qf' Treuties, First Session,&lt;br /&gt;Vienna, 26 Murch-24 Muy 1968, doc. A/CONF.39/11, Summary records&lt;br /&gt;of the plenary meetings and of the meetings of the Committee of the&lt;br /&gt;Whole, 62nd Meeting of the Committee of the Whole, pp. 361-365).&lt;br /&gt;Although it was recognized that such situations could lead to a preclusion&lt;br /&gt;of the wrongfulness of non-performance by a party of its treaty&lt;br /&gt;obligations, the participating States were not prepared to consider such&lt;br /&gt;situations to be a ground for terminating or suspending a treaty,&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;and preferred to limit themselves to a narrower concept.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Hungary contended that the essential object of the Treaty - an&lt;br /&gt;economic joint investment which was consistent with environmental protection&lt;br /&gt;and which was operated by the two contracting parties jointly -&lt;br /&gt;had permanently disappeared and that the Treaty had thus become&lt;br /&gt;impossible to perform. It is not necessary for the Court to determine&lt;br /&gt;whether the term "object" in Article 61 can also be understood to&lt;br /&gt;embrace a legal régime as in any event, even if that were the case, it would have to conclude that in this instance that régime had not definitively&lt;br /&gt;ceased to exist. The 1977 Treaty - and in particular its Articles 15,&lt;br /&gt;19 and 20 - actually made available to the parties the necessary means&lt;br /&gt;to proceed at any time, by negotiation, to the required readjustments&lt;br /&gt;between economic imperatives and ecological imperatives. The Court&lt;br /&gt;would add that, if the joint exploitation of the investment was no longer&lt;br /&gt;possible, this was originally because Hungary did not carry out most of&lt;br /&gt;the works for which it was responsible under the 1977 Treaty; Article 61,&lt;br /&gt;paragraph 2, of the Vienna Convention expressly provides that impossibility&lt;br /&gt;of performance may not be invoked for the termination of a treaty&lt;br /&gt;by a party to that treaty when it results from that party's own breach of&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;an obligation flowing from that treaty.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-198161159699879141?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/198161159699879141/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/icj-opinion-about-impossibility-of.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/198161159699879141'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/198161159699879141'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/icj-opinion-about-impossibility-of.html' title='ICJ Opinion about Impossibility of Performace of gabcikovo case'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-7785649664076092641</id><published>2009-06-22T07:42:00.005+07:00</published><updated>2009-07-05T22:53:14.068+07:00</updated><title type='text'>asal</title><content type='html'>Article 2&lt;br /&gt;(1) The Court is requested to decide on the basis of the Treaty and rules&lt;br /&gt;and principles of general international law. as well as such other treaties as&lt;br /&gt;the Court may find applicable,&lt;br /&gt;( a ) whether the Republic of Hungary was entitled to suspend and subsequently&lt;br /&gt;abandon, in 1989, the works on the Nagymaros Project and&lt;br /&gt;on the part of the GabCikovo Project for which the Treaty attributed&lt;br /&gt;responsibility to the Republic of Hungary:&lt;span class='fullpost'&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(b) whether the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic was entitled to proceed,&lt;br /&gt;in November 1991, to the 'provisional solution' and to put into&lt;br /&gt;operation from October 1992 this system, described in the Report of&lt;br /&gt;the Working Group of Independent Experts of the Commission of&lt;br /&gt;the European Communities, the Republic of Hungary and the Czech&lt;br /&gt;and Slovak Federal Republic dated 23 November 1992 (damming up&lt;br /&gt;of the Danube at river kilometre 185 1.7 on Czechoslovak territory&lt;br /&gt;and resulting consequences on water and navigation coufse);&lt;br /&gt;(c) what are the legal effects of the notification, on 19 May 1992, of the&lt;br /&gt;termination of the Treaty by the Republic of Hungary.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-7785649664076092641?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/7785649664076092641/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/asal.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/7785649664076092641'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/7785649664076092641'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/asal.html' title='asal'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-7508413499537570175</id><published>2009-06-22T07:42:00.004+07:00</published><updated>2009-07-05T22:49:47.956+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Law'/><title type='text'>Pasal 2 ayat 1 Perjanjian Khusus antara Hungary republic dan Slovakia republic</title><content type='html'>Article 2&lt;br /&gt;(1) The Court is requested to decide on the basis of the Treaty and rules&lt;br /&gt;and principles of general international law. as well as such other treaties as&lt;br /&gt;the Court may find applicable,&lt;br /&gt;( a ) whether the Republic of Hungary was entitled to suspend and subsequently&lt;br /&gt;abandon, in 1989, the works on the Nagymaros Project and&lt;br /&gt;on the part of the GabCikovo Project for which the Treaty attributed&lt;br /&gt;responsibility to the Republic of Hungary:&lt;span class='fullpost'&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(b) whether the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic was entitled to proceed,&lt;br /&gt;in November 1991, to the 'provisional solution' and to put into&lt;br /&gt;operation from October 1992 this system, described in the Report of&lt;br /&gt;the Working Group of Independent Experts of the Commission of&lt;br /&gt;the European Communities, the Republic of Hungary and the Czech&lt;br /&gt;and Slovak Federal Republic dated 23 November 1992 (damming up&lt;br /&gt;of the Danube at river kilometre 185 1.7 on Czechoslovak territory&lt;br /&gt;and resulting consequences on water and navigation coufse);&lt;br /&gt;(c) what are the legal effects of the notification, on 19 May 1992, of the&lt;br /&gt;termination of the Treaty by the Republic of Hungary.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/2378646015926947746-7508413499537570175?l=dhanajournal.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/feeds/7508413499537570175/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/pasal-2-ayat-1-perjanjian-khusus-antara.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/7508413499537570175'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/2378646015926947746/posts/default/7508413499537570175'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://dhanajournal.blogspot.com/2009/06/pasal-2-ayat-1-perjanjian-khusus-antara.html' title='Pasal 2 ayat 1 Perjanjian Khusus antara Hungary republic dan Slovakia republic'/><author><name>muhammad yusuf pradhana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/18150861817207364228</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='24' src='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_RhUI22egJW8/SeKLUKVDzyI/AAAAAAAAABk/_6lysNHvpTw/S220/APicture(65).jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2378646015926947746.post-2293798564118424079</id><published>2009-06-21T00:00:00.003+07:00</published><updated>2009-07-14T01:24:41.752+07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Law'/><title type='text'>THE GABCIKOVO-NAGYMAROS PROJECT</title><content type='html'>&lt;script src="http://www.gmodules.com/ig/ifr?url=http://www.google.com/ig/modules/translatemypage.xml&amp;up_source_language=en&amp;w=160&amp;h=60&amp;title=&amp;border=&amp;output=js"&gt;&lt;/script&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: center;"&gt;INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE&lt;br /&gt;REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS CASE CONCERNING&lt;br /&gt;THE GABCIKOVO-NAGYMAROS PROJECT&lt;br /&gt;(HUNGARYISLOVAKIA)&lt;br /&gt;JUDCMENT OF 25 SEPTEMBER 1997&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Official citation :&lt;br /&gt;GabCikovo-Nagymaros Project (HungarylSlovakia),&lt;br /&gt;Judgment, 1. C. J. Reports 1997, p. 7&lt;br /&gt;ISSN 0074-4441&lt;br /&gt;ISBN 92-1-070757-5&lt;br /&gt;Sales number: 692&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: right;"&gt;25 SEPTEMBER 1997&lt;br /&gt;JUDGMENT&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: center;"&gt;GABC~KOVO-NACYMAROS PROJECT&lt;br /&gt;(HUNGARYISLOVAKIA)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;1997&lt;br /&gt;25 September&lt;br /&gt;General List&lt;br /&gt;No. 92&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class='fullpost'&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Treaty of 16 September 1977 concerning the construction and operation of&lt;br /&gt;the GabCikovo-Nugymaros Systenz of Locks - "Related instruments".&lt;br /&gt;Suspension and abandonment by Hungary, in 1989, oj'works on the Project&lt;br /&gt;- Applicability of the Vienna Convention of 1969 on the Law of Treaties -&lt;br /&gt;Law of treaties and law of State responsibility - Stute of necessity as a ground&lt;br /&gt;jor precluding the wrongfulness of an act - "Essential interest" of the State&lt;br /&gt;committing the act - Environment - "Grave und imminent peril" - Act&lt;br /&gt;having to constitute the "only means" of saj&amp;amp;guarding the interest threatened -&lt;br /&gt;State having "contributed to the occurrence of the state of necessity".&lt;br /&gt;Czechoslovakia:~pr oceeding, in November 1991, to "Variant C" andputting&lt;br /&gt;into operation, from October 1992, this Variant - Arguments drawn from a&lt;br /&gt;proposed principle of approximate application - Respect for the limits of the&lt;br /&gt;Treaty - Right to an equitahle and reasonable share of rhe resources of an&lt;br /&gt;international wutercourse - Commission of a wrongful act andprior conduct of&lt;br /&gt;a prepararory character - Obligation to mitigate damages - Principle concerning&lt;br /&gt;only the calculation of damages - Countermeasures - Response to an&lt;br /&gt;internationally wrongful act - Proportionality - Assumption of unilateral&lt;br /&gt;control of a shared resource.&lt;br /&gt;Notification by Hungary, on 19 May 1992, of the fermination of the 1977&lt;br /&gt;Treaty and reluted instruments - Legal efjrects - Matter falling within the law&lt;br /&gt;of treaties - Articles 60 to 62 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Trearies&lt;br /&gt;- Customury law - lmpossihility of performance - Permanent disappearance&lt;br /&gt;or destruction of an "object" indispensable for execution - Impossibility of prrformance&lt;br /&gt;resulting from the hreach, by the party invoking il, of an obligation&lt;br /&gt;under the Treaty - Fundamental change of circumstances - Essential basis of&lt;br /&gt;the consent of the parties - Extent of obligations still to be performed - Stability&lt;br /&gt;of treaty relations - Material breach of the Treaty - Date on which the&lt;br /&gt;breach occurred and date of notijïcation of termination - Victim of a breach&lt;br /&gt;having itselfcommitted a prior breach of the Treaty - Emergence of new norms&lt;br /&gt;of environmental law - Sustainable development - Treaty provisions permit&lt;br /&gt;GABC~KOVO-NAGYMPARORJOECST (JUDGMENT)&lt;br /&gt;ting the parties, by mutual consent, to take account of those norms - Repudiation&lt;br /&gt;of the Treaty - Reciprocal non-compliance - Integrity of the rule pacta&lt;br /&gt;sunt servanda - Treaty remaining in force until terminated by mutual consent.&lt;br /&gt;Legal consequences of the Judgment of the Court - Dissolution of Czechoslovakia&lt;br /&gt;- Article 12 of the Vienna Convention of 1978 on Succession of States&lt;br /&gt;in respect of' Treaties - Customary laiv - Succession of States without effect&lt;br /&gt;on a treaty creating rights and obligations "attaching" to the territory -&lt;br /&gt;Irregular state of uffairs as a result of failure of both Parties to comply with&lt;br /&gt;their treaty obligations - Ex injuria jus non oritur - Objectives of the Treaty&lt;br /&gt;- Obligations overtaken by events - Positions adopted by the parties after&lt;br /&gt;conclusion of the Treaty - Good faith negotiations - Effects of the Project on&lt;br /&gt;the environment - Agreed solution to be found by the Parties - Joint régime&lt;br /&gt;- Reparation for arts committed by both Parties - Co-operation in the use of&lt;br /&gt;shared water resources - Damages - Succession in respect of rights and obligations&lt;br /&gt;relating to the Project - Intersecting ivrongs - Settlement of accounts&lt;br /&gt;for the construction of the works.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;JUDGMENT&lt;br /&gt;Present: President SCHWEBELVi;c e-President WEERAMANTRJuYd;g es ODA,&lt;br /&gt;BEDIAOUIG, UILLAUMRE,A NJEVAH, ERCZEGHS,H I, FLEISCHHAUER,&lt;br /&gt;KOROMAV, ERESHCHETPINA,R RA-ARANGURKEONO, IJMANRS,E ZEK;&lt;br /&gt;Judge ad hoc SKUBISZEW; RSeKgIi strar VALENCIA-OSPINA&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;In the case concerning the GabCikovo-Nagymaros Project,&lt;br /&gt;between&lt;br /&gt;the Republic of Hungary,&lt;br /&gt;represented by&lt;br /&gt;H.E. Mr. Gyorgy Szénasi, Ambassador, Head of the International Law&lt;br /&gt;Department, Ministry of Foreign Affairs,&lt;br /&gt;as Agent and Counsel;&lt;br /&gt;H.E. Mr. Dénes Tomaj, Ambassador of the Republic of Hungary to the&lt;br /&gt;Netherlands,&lt;br /&gt;as Co-Agent ;&lt;br /&gt;Mr. James Crawford, Whewell Professor of International Law, University of&lt;br /&gt;Cambridge,&lt;br /&gt;Mr. Pierre-Marie Dupuy, Professor at the University Panthéon-Assas&lt;br /&gt;(Paris II) and Director of the Institut des hautes études internationales&lt;br /&gt;of Paris,&lt;br /&gt;Mr. Alexandre Kiss, Director of Research, Centre national de la recherche&lt;br /&gt;scientifique (retd.),&lt;br /&gt;Mr. Laszlo Valki, Professor of International Law, Eotvos Lorand University,&lt;br /&gt;Budapest,&lt;br /&gt;Mr. Boldizsar Nagy, Associate Professor of International Law, Eotvos&lt;br /&gt;Lorand University, Budapest,&lt;br /&gt;Mr. Philippe Sands, Reader in International Law, University of London,&lt;br /&gt;School of Oriental and African Studies, and Global Professor of Law,&lt;br /&gt;New York University,&lt;br /&gt;Ms Katherine Gorove, consulting Attorney,&lt;br /&gt;as Counsel and Advocates;&lt;br /&gt;Dr. Howard Wheater, Professor of Hydrology, Imperia1 College, London,&lt;br /&gt;Dr. Gabor Vida, Professor of Biology, Eotvos Lorand University, Budapest,&lt;br /&gt;Member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences,&lt;br /&gt;Dr. Roland Carbiener, Professor emeritus of the University of Strasbourg,&lt;br /&gt;Dr. Klaus Kern, consulting Engineer, Karlsruhe,&lt;br /&gt;as Advocates;&lt;br /&gt;Mr. Edward Helgeson,&lt;br /&gt;Mr. Stuart Oldham,&lt;br /&gt;Mr. Péter Molnar,&lt;br /&gt;as Advisers;&lt;br /&gt;Dr. Gyorgy Kovacs,&lt;br /&gt;Mr. Timothy Walsh,&lt;br /&gt;Mr. Zoltan Kovacs,&lt;br /&gt;as Technical Advisers ;&lt;br /&gt;Dr. Attila Nyikos,&lt;br /&gt;as Assistant ;&lt;br /&gt;Mr. Axe1 Gosseries, LL.M.,&lt;br /&gt;as Translator ;&lt;br /&gt;Ms Éva Kocsis,&lt;br /&gt;Ms Katinka Tompa,&lt;br /&gt;as Secretaries,&lt;br /&gt;and&lt;br /&gt;the Slovak Republic,&lt;br /&gt;represented by&lt;br /&gt;H.E. Dr. Peter Tomka, Ambassador, Legal Adviser of the Ministry of Foreign&lt;br /&gt;Affairs,&lt;br /&gt;as Agent;&lt;br /&gt;Dr. Vaclav Mikulka, Member of the International Law Commission,&lt;br /&gt;as Co-Agent, Counsel and Advocate;&lt;br /&gt;Mr. Derek W. Bowett, C.B.E., Q.C., F.B.A., Whewell Professor emeritus of&lt;br /&gt;International Law at the University of Cambridge, former Member of the&lt;br /&gt;International Law Commission,&lt;br /&gt;as Counsel ;&lt;br /&gt;Mr. Stephen C. McCaffrey, Professor of International Law at the University&lt;br /&gt;of the Pacific, McGeorge School of Law, Sacramento, United States of&lt;br /&gt;America, former Member of the International Law Commission,&lt;br /&gt;Mr. Alain Pellet, Professor at the University of Paris X-Nanterre and at the&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Institute of Political Studies, Paris, Member of the International Law&lt;br /&gt;Commission,&lt;br /&gt;Mr. Walter D. Sohier, Member of the Bar of the State of New York and of&lt;br /&gt;the District of Columbia,&lt;br /&gt;Sir Arthur Watts, K.C.M.G., Q.C., Barrister, Member of the Bar of England&lt;br /&gt;and Wales,&lt;br /&gt;Mr. Samuel S. Wordsworth, avocat à la cour d'appel de Paris, Solicitor of&lt;br /&gt;the Supreme Court of England and Wales, Frere Cholmeley, Paris,&lt;br /&gt;as Counsel and Advocates;&lt;br /&gt;Mr. Igor Mucha, Professor of Hydrogeology and Former Head of the&lt;br /&gt;Groundwater Department at the Faculty of Natural Sciences of Comenius&lt;br /&gt;University in Bratislava,&lt;br /&gt;Mr. Karra Venkateswara Rao, Director of Water Resources Engineering,&lt;br /&gt;Department of Civil Engineering, City University, London,&lt;br /&gt;Mr. Jens Christian Refsgaard, Head of Research and Development, Danish&lt;br /&gt;Hydraulic Institute,&lt;br /&gt;as Counsel and Experts;&lt;br /&gt;Dr. Cecilia KandraCova, Director of Department, Ministry of Foreign&lt;br /&gt;Affairs,&lt;br /&gt;Mr. Ludëk Krajhanzl, Attorney at Law, Vyroubal Krajhanzl Skacel and&lt;br /&gt;Partners, Prague,&lt;br /&gt;Mr. Miroslav LiSka, Head of the Division for Public Relations and Expertise,&lt;br /&gt;Water Resources Development State Enterprise, Bratislava,&lt;br /&gt;Dr. Peter VrSansky, Minister-Counsellor, Chargé d'affaires a.i., of the&lt;br /&gt;Embassy of the Slovak Republic, The Hague,&lt;br /&gt;as Counsellors ;&lt;br /&gt;Miss Anouche Beaudouin, allocataire de recherche at the University of&lt;br /&gt;Paris X-Nanterre,&lt;br /&gt;Ms Cheryl Dunn, Frere Cholmeley, Paris,&lt;br /&gt;Ms Nikoleta GI!ndova, attaché, Ministry of Foreign Affairs,&lt;br /&gt;Mr. Drahoslav Stefanek, attaché, Ministry of Foreign Affairs,&lt;br /&gt;as Legal Assistants,&lt;br /&gt;composed as above,&lt;br /&gt;after deliberation,&lt;br /&gt;delivers the following Judgment ;&lt;br /&gt;1. By a letter dated 2 July 1993, filed in the Registry of the Court on the&lt;br /&gt;same day, the Ambassador of the Republic of Hungary (hereinafter called&lt;br /&gt;"Hungary") to the Netherlands and the Chargé d'affaires ad interim of the Slovak&lt;br /&gt;Republic (hereinafter called "Slovakia") to the Netherlands jointly notified&lt;br /&gt;to the Court a Special Agreement in English that had been signed at Brussels&lt;br /&gt;on 7 April 1993 and had entered into force on 28 June 1993, on the date of the&lt;br /&gt;exchange of instruments of ratification.&lt;br /&gt;2. The text of the Special Agreement reads as follows:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"The Republic of Hungary and the Slovak Rcpublic,&lt;br /&gt;Considering that differences have arisen between the Czech and Slovak&lt;br /&gt;Federal Republic and the Republic of Hungary regarding the implementation&lt;br /&gt;and the termination of the Treaty on the Construction and Operation&lt;br /&gt;of the Gabtikovo-Nagymaros Barrage System signed in Budapest on&lt;br /&gt;16 September 1977 and related instruments (hereinafter referred to as 'the&lt;br /&gt;Treaty'), and on the construction and operation of the 'provisional solution';&lt;br /&gt;Beuring in nlind that the Slovak Republic is one of the two successor&lt;br /&gt;States of the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic and the sole successor&lt;br /&gt;State in respect of rights and obligations relating to the GabCikovo-Nagymaros&lt;br /&gt;Project ;&lt;br /&gt;Recognizing that the Parties concerned have been unable to settle these&lt;br /&gt;differences by negotiations;&lt;br /&gt;Huving in rnind that both the Czechoslovak and Hungarian delegations&lt;br /&gt;expressed their commitment to submit the differences connected with the&lt;br /&gt;GabCikovo-Nagymaros Project in al1 its aspects to binding international&lt;br /&gt;arbitration or to the International Court of Justice;&lt;br /&gt;Desiring that these differences should be settled by the International&lt;br /&gt;Court of Justice;&lt;br /&gt;Reculling their commitment to apply, pending the Judgment of the&lt;br /&gt;International Court of Justice, such a temporary water management régime&lt;br /&gt;of the Danube as shall be agreed between the Parties;&lt;br /&gt;Desiring further to define the issues to be submitted to the International&lt;br /&gt;Court of Justice.&lt;br /&gt;Have agreed as follows :&lt;br /&gt;Article I&lt;br /&gt;The Parties submit the questions contained in Article 2 to the International&lt;br /&gt;Court of Justice pursuant to Article 40, paragraph 1, of the Statute&lt;br /&gt;of the Court.&lt;br /&gt;Article 2&lt;br /&gt;(1) The Court is requested to decide on the basis of the Treaty and rules&lt;br /&gt;and principles of general international law. as well as such other treaties as&lt;br /&gt;the Court may find applicable,&lt;br /&gt;( a ) whether the Republic of Hungary was entitled to suspend and subsequently&lt;br /&gt;abandon, in 1989, the works on the Nagymaros Project and&lt;br /&gt;on the part of the GabCikovo Project for which the Treaty attributed&lt;br /&gt;responsibility to the Republic of Hungary:&lt;br /&gt;(b) whether the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic was entitled to proceed,&lt;br /&gt;in November 1991, to the 'provisional solution' and to put into&lt;br /&gt;operation from October 1992 this system, described in the Report of&lt;br /&gt;the Working Group of Independent Experts of the Commission of&lt;br /&gt;the European Communities, the Republic of Hungary and the Czech&lt;br /&gt;and Slovak Federal Republic dated 23 November 1992 (damming up&lt;br /&gt;of the Danube at river kilometre 185 1.7 on Czechoslovak territory&lt;br /&gt;and resulting consequences on water and navigation coufse);&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(c) what are the legal effects of the notification, on 19 May 1992, of the&lt;br /&gt;termination of the Treaty by the Republic of Hungary.&lt;br /&gt;(2) The Court is also requested to determine the legal consequences,&lt;br /&gt;including the rights and obligations for the Parties, arising from its Judgment&lt;br /&gt;on the questions in paragraph 1 of this Article.&lt;br /&gt;Article 3&lt;br /&gt;(1) Al1 questions of procedure and evidence shall be regulated in accordance&lt;br /&gt;with the provisions of the Statute and the Rules of Court.&lt;br /&gt;(2) However. the Parties request the Court to order that the written&lt;br /&gt;proceedings should consist of:&lt;br /&gt;(LI) a Memorial presented by each of the Parties not later than ten&lt;br /&gt;months after the date of notification of this Special Agreement to the&lt;br /&gt;Registrar of the International Court of Justice;&lt;br /&gt;( h i a Counter-Memorial presented by each of the Parties not later than&lt;br /&gt;seven months after the date on which each has received the certified&lt;br /&gt;copy of the Memorial of the other Party;&lt;br /&gt;( c i a Reply presented by each of the Parties within such time-limits as the&lt;br /&gt;Court may order.&lt;br /&gt;(d) The Court may request additional written pleadings by the Parties if&lt;br /&gt;it so determines.&lt;br /&gt;(3) The above-mentioned parts of the written proceedings and their&lt;br /&gt;annexes presented to the Registrar will not be transmitted to the other&lt;br /&gt;Party until the Registrar has received the corresponding part of the proceedings&lt;br /&gt;from the said Party.&lt;br /&gt;Article 4&lt;br /&gt;(1) The Parties agree that, pending the final Judgment of the Court,&lt;br /&gt;they will establish and implement a temporary water management régime&lt;br /&gt;for the Danube.&lt;br /&gt;(2) They further agree that, in the period before such a régime is established&lt;br /&gt;or implemented, if either Party believes its rights are endangered by&lt;br /&gt;the conduct of the other, it may request immediate consultation and reference,&lt;br /&gt;if necessary, to experts, including the Commission of the European&lt;br /&gt;Communities, with a view to protecting those rights; and that protection&lt;br /&gt;shall not be sought through a request to the Court under Article 41 of the&lt;br /&gt;Statute.&lt;br /&gt;(3) This commitment is accepted by both Parties as fundamental to the&lt;br /&gt;conclusion and continuing validity of the Special Agreement.&lt;br /&gt;Article 5&lt;br /&gt;(1) The Parties shall accept the Judgment of the Court as final and binding&lt;br /&gt;upon them and shall execute it in its entirety and in good faith.&lt;br /&gt;(2) Immediately after the transmission of the Judgment the Parties shall&lt;br /&gt;enter into negotiations on the modalities for its execution.&lt;br /&gt;(3) If they are unable to reach agreement within six months, either&lt;br /&gt;Party may request the Court to render an additional Judgment to determine&lt;br /&gt;the modalities for executing its Judgment.&lt;br /&gt;Article 6&lt;br /&gt;(1) The present Special Agreement shall be subject to ratification.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(2) The instruments of ratification shall be exchanged as soon as possible&lt;br /&gt;in Brussels.&lt;br /&gt;(3) The present Special Agreement shall enter into force on the date of&lt;br /&gt;exchange of instruments of ratification. Thereafter it will be notified jointly&lt;br /&gt;to the Registrar of the Court.&lt;br /&gt;In witness whereof the undersigned being duly authorized thereto, have&lt;br /&gt;signed the present Special Agreement and have affixed thereto their seals."&lt;br /&gt;3. Pursuant to Article 40, paragraph 3, of the Statute and Article 42 of the&lt;br /&gt;Rules of Court, copies of the notification and of the Special Agreement were&lt;br /&gt;transmitted by the Registrar to the Secretary-General of the United Nations,&lt;br /&gt;Members of the United Nations and other States entitled to appear before the&lt;br /&gt;Court.&lt;br /&gt;4. Since the Court included upon the Bench no judge of Slovak nationality,&lt;br /&gt;Slovakia exercised its right under Article 31, paragraph 2, of the Statute to&lt;br /&gt;choose a judge ad hoc to sit in the case: it chose Mr. Krzysztof Jan Skubiszewski.&lt;br /&gt;5. By an Order dated 14 July 1993, the Court fixed 2 May 1994 as the timelimit&lt;br /&gt;for the filing by each of the Parties of a Memorial and 5 December 1994&lt;br /&gt;for the filing by each of the Parties of a Counter-Memorial. having regard to&lt;br /&gt;the provisions of Article 3, paragraph 2 (a) and (b), of the Special Agreement.&lt;br /&gt;Those pleadings were duly filed within the prescribed time-limits.&lt;br /&gt;6. By an Order dated 20 December 1994, the President of the Court,&lt;br /&gt;having heard the Agents of the Parties, fixed 20 June 1995 as the time-limit&lt;br /&gt;for the filing of the Replies, having regard to the provisions of Article 3, paragraph&lt;br /&gt;2 (c), of the Special Agreement. The Replies were duly filed within the&lt;br /&gt;time-limit thus prescribed and, as the Court had not asked for the submission&lt;br /&gt;of additional pleadings, the case was then ready for hearing.&lt;br /&gt;7. By letters dated 27 January 1997, the Agent of Slovakia, referring to the&lt;br /&gt;provisions of Article 56, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court, expressed his Government's&lt;br /&gt;wish to produce two new documents; by a letter dated 10 February&lt;br /&gt;1997, the Agent of Hungary declared that his Government objected to their&lt;br /&gt;production. On 26 February 1997, after having duly ascertained the views of&lt;br /&gt;the two Parties, the Court decided, in accordance with Article 56, paragraph 2,&lt;br /&gt;of the Rules of Court, to authorize the production of those documents under&lt;br /&gt;certain conditions of which the Parties were advised. Within the time-limit fixed&lt;br /&gt;by the Court to that end, Hungary submitted comments on one of those documents&lt;br /&gt;under paragraph 3 of that same Article. The Court authorized Slovakia&lt;br /&gt;to comment in turn upon those observations, as it had expressed a wish to do&lt;br /&gt;so; its comments were received within the time-limit prescribed for that purpose.&lt;br /&gt;8. Moreover, each of the Parties asked to be allowed to show a video cassette&lt;br /&gt;in the course of the oral proceedings. The Court agreed to those requests,&lt;br /&gt;provided that the cassettes in question were exchanged in advance between the&lt;br /&gt;Parties, through the intermediary of the Registry. That exchange was effected&lt;br /&gt;accordingly.&lt;br /&gt;9. In accordance with Article 53, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court. the&lt;br /&gt;Court decided, after having ascertained the views of the Parties. that copies of&lt;br /&gt;the pleadings and documents annexed would be made available to the public as&lt;br /&gt;from the opening of the oral proceedings.&lt;br /&gt;10. By a letter dated 16 June 1995, the Agent of Slovakia invited the Court&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;to visit the locality to which the case relates and there to exercise its functions&lt;br /&gt;with regard to the obtaining of evidence, in accordance with Article 66 of the&lt;br /&gt;Rules of Court. For his part, the Agent of Hungary indicated, by a letter dated&lt;br /&gt;28 June 1995, that, if the Court should decide that a visit of that kind would be&lt;br /&gt;useful, his Government would be pleased to co-operate in organizing it. By a&lt;br /&gt;letter dated 14 November 1995, the Agents of the Parties jointly notified to the&lt;br /&gt;Court the text of a Protocol of Agreement, concluded in Budapest and New&lt;br /&gt;York the same day, with a view to proposing to the Court the arrangements&lt;br /&gt;that might be made for such a visit in situ; and, by a letter dated 3 February&lt;br /&gt;1997, they jointly notified to it the text of Agreed Minutes drawn up in Budapest&lt;br /&gt;and New York the same day, which supplemented the Protocol of Agreement&lt;br /&gt;of 14 November 1995. By an Order dated 5 February 1997, the Court&lt;br /&gt;decided to accept the invitation to exercise its functions with regard to the&lt;br /&gt;obtaining of evidence at a place to which the case relates and, to that end, to&lt;br /&gt;adopt the arrangements proposed by the Parties. The Court visited the area&lt;br /&gt;from 1 to 4 April 1997; it visited a number of locations along the Danube and&lt;br /&gt;took note of the technical explanations given by the representatives who had&lt;br /&gt;been designated for the purpose by the Parties.&lt;br /&gt;I l . The Court held a first round of ten public hearings from 3 to 7 March&lt;br /&gt;and from 24 to 27 March 1997, and a second round of four public hearings on&lt;br /&gt;10, 1 1, 14 and 15 April 1997, after having made the visit in situ referred to in&lt;br /&gt;the previous paragraph. During those hearings, the Court heard the oral arguments&lt;br /&gt;and replies of:&lt;br /&gt;For Hungary: H.E. Mr. Szénasi,&lt;br /&gt;Professor Valki,&lt;br /&gt;Professor Kiss,&lt;br /&gt;Professor Vida,&lt;br /&gt;Professor Carbiener,&lt;br /&gt;Professor Crawford,&lt;br /&gt;Professor Nagy,&lt;br /&gt;Dr. Kern,&lt;br /&gt;Professor Wheater,&lt;br /&gt;Ms Gorove.&lt;br /&gt;Professor Dupuy,&lt;br /&gt;Professor Sands.&lt;br /&gt;For Slovakia: H.E. Dr. Tomka,&lt;br /&gt;Dr. Mikulka,&lt;br /&gt;Mr. Wordsworth,&lt;br /&gt;Professor McCaffrey,&lt;br /&gt;Professor Mucha,&lt;br /&gt;Professor Pellet,&lt;br /&gt;Mr. Refsgaard,&lt;br /&gt;Sir Arthur Watts.&lt;br /&gt;12. The Parties replied orally and in writing to various questions put by&lt;br /&gt;Members of the Court. Referring to the provisions of Article 72 of the Rules of&lt;br /&gt;Court, each of the Parties submitted to the Court its comments upon the replies&lt;br /&gt;given by the other Party to some of those questions.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;13. In the course of the written proceedings, the following submissions were&lt;br /&gt;presented by the Parties:&lt;br /&gt;On hekaif of Hungary,&lt;br /&gt;in the Memorial, the Counter-Memorial and the Reply (mutatis mutandis identicai&lt;br /&gt;texts) :&lt;br /&gt;"On the basis of the evidence and legal argument presented in the&lt;br /&gt;Memorial, Counter-Memorial and this Reply, the Republic of Hungary&lt;br /&gt;Reyuests the Court to rrdjudge and declare&lt;br /&gt;First, that the Republic of Hungary was entitled to suspend and subsequently&lt;br /&gt;abandon the works on the Nagymaros Project and on the part of&lt;br /&gt;the Gabtikovo Project for which the Treaty attributed responsibility to the&lt;br /&gt;Republic of Hungary;&lt;br /&gt;Second, that the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic was not entitled to&lt;br /&gt;proceed to the 'provisional solution' (damming up of the Danube at river&lt;br /&gt;kilometre 185 1.7 on Czechoslovak territory and resulting consequences on&lt;br /&gt;water and navigation course);&lt;br /&gt;Tizird, that by its Declaration of 19 May 1992, Hungary validly terminated&lt;br /&gt;the Treaty on the Construction and Operation of the Gabtikovo-&lt;br /&gt;Nagymaros Barrage System of 16 September 1977:&lt;br /&gt;Rrqzre.~ts the Court to adjzldge and declare furtller&lt;br /&gt;that the legal consequences of these findings and of the evidence and the&lt;br /&gt;arguments presented to the Court are as follows:&lt;br /&gt;(1) that the Treaty of 16 September 1977 has never been in force between&lt;br /&gt;the Republic of Hungary and the Slovak Republic;&lt;br /&gt;(2) that the Slovak Republic bears responsibility to the Republic of Hungary&lt;br /&gt;for maintaining in operation the 'provisional solution' referred to&lt;br /&gt;above ;&lt;br /&gt;(3) that the Slovak Republic is internationally responsible for the damage&lt;br /&gt;and loss suffered by the Republic of Hungary and by its nationals as a&lt;br /&gt;result of the 'provisional solution';&lt;br /&gt;(4) that the Slovak Republic is under an obligation to make reparation in&lt;br /&gt;respect of such damage and loss, the amount of such reparation, if it&lt;br /&gt;cannot be agreed by the Parties within six months of the date of the&lt;br /&gt;Judgment of the Court, to be deterrnined by the Court;&lt;br /&gt;(5) that the Slovak Republic is under the following obligations:&lt;br /&gt;( a ) to return the waters of the Danube to their course along the&lt;br /&gt;international frontier between the Republic of Hungary and the&lt;br /&gt;Slovak Republic, that is to Say the main navigable channel as&lt;br /&gt;defined by applicable treaties;&lt;br /&gt;(b) to restore the Danube to the situation it was in prior to the&lt;br /&gt;putting into effect of the provisional solution: and&lt;br /&gt;( c ) to provide appropriate guarantees against the repetition of the&lt;br /&gt;damage and loss suffered by the Republic of Hungary and by its&lt;br /&gt;nationals."&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;On behaif of Slovakia,&lt;br /&gt;in the Memorial, the Counter-Memorial and the Reply (mutatis mutandis identical&lt;br /&gt;texts) :&lt;br /&gt;"On the basis of the evidence and legal arguments presented in the Slovak&lt;br /&gt;Memorial, Counter-Memorial and in this Reply, and reserving the&lt;br /&gt;right to supplement or amend its claims in the light of further written&lt;br /&gt;pleadings, the Slovak Republic&lt;br /&gt;Requests fhe Court to udjudge and declare:&lt;br /&gt;1. That the Treaty between Czechoslovakia and Hungary of 16 September&lt;br /&gt;1977 concerning the construction and operation of the Gabtikovol&lt;br /&gt;Nagymaros System of Locks, and related instruments, and to which the&lt;br /&gt;Slovak Republic is the acknowledged successor, is a treaty in force and&lt;br /&gt;has been so from the date of its conclusion; and that the notification of&lt;br /&gt;termination by the Republic of Hungary on 19 May 1992 was without&lt;br /&gt;legal effect.&lt;br /&gt;2. That the Republic of Hungary was not entitled to suspend and subsequently&lt;br /&gt;abandon the works on the Nagymaros Project and on that part&lt;br /&gt;of the Gabtikovo Project for which the 1977 Treaty attributed responsibility&lt;br /&gt;to the Republic of Hungary.&lt;br /&gt;3. That the act of proceeding with and putting into operation Variant C,&lt;br /&gt;the 'provisional solution', was lawful.&lt;br /&gt;4. That the Republic of Hungary must therefore cease forthwith al1 conduct&lt;br /&gt;which impedes the full and bona fide implementation of the 1977&lt;br /&gt;Treaty and must take al1 necessary steps to fulfil its own obligations&lt;br /&gt;under the Treaty without further delay in order to restore compliance&lt;br /&gt;with the Treaty.&lt;br /&gt;5. That, in consequence of its breaches of the 1977 Treaty, the Republic of&lt;br /&gt;Hungary is liable to pay, and the Slovak Republic is entitled to receive,&lt;br /&gt;full compensation for the loss and damage caused to the Slovak Republic&lt;br /&gt;by those breaches, plus interest and loss of profits, in the amounts&lt;br /&gt;to be determined by the Court in a subsequent phase of the proceedings&lt;br /&gt;in this case."&lt;br /&gt;14. In the oral proceedings. the following submissions were presented by the&lt;br /&gt;Parties&lt;br /&gt;On behaif of Huagury,&lt;br /&gt;at the hearing of 1 1 April 1997:&lt;br /&gt;The submissions read at the hearing were mutatis mutandis identical to those&lt;br /&gt;presented by Hungary during the written proceedings.&lt;br /&gt;On behalf of' Slovakia,&lt;br /&gt;at the hearing of 15 April 1997 :&lt;br /&gt;"On the basis of the evidence and legal arguments presented in its written&lt;br /&gt;and oral pleadings, the Slovak Republic,&lt;br /&gt;Requests the Court to adjudge and declare:&lt;br /&gt;1. That the Treaty, as defined in the first paragraph of the Preamble to the&lt;br /&gt;Compromis between the Parties, dated 7 April 1993, concerning the&lt;br /&gt;construction and operation of the GabtikovolNagymaros System of&lt;br /&gt;Locks and related instruments, concluded between Hungary and Czechoslovakia and with regard to which the Slovak Republic is the&lt;br /&gt;successor State, has never ceased to be in force and so remains, and&lt;br /&gt;that the notification of 19 May 1992 of purported termination of the&lt;br /&gt;Treaty by the Republic of Hungary was without legal effect;&lt;br /&gt;2. That the Republic of Hungary was not entitled to suspend and subsequently&lt;br /&gt;abandon the works on the Nagymaros Project and on that part&lt;br /&gt;of the Gabeikovo Project for which the 1977 Treaty attributes responsibility&lt;br /&gt;to the Republic of Hungary;&lt;br /&gt;3. That the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic was entitled, in November&lt;br /&gt;1991, to proceed with the 'provisional solution' and to put this system&lt;br /&gt;into operation from October 1992; and that the Slovak Republic&lt;br /&gt;was, and remains, entitled to continue the operation of this system;&lt;br /&gt;4. That the Republic of Hungary shall therefore cease forthwith al1 conduct&lt;br /&gt;which impedes the bona fide implementation of the 1977 Treaty&lt;br /&gt;and shall take al1 necessary steps to fulfil its own obligations under the&lt;br /&gt;Treaty without further delay in order to restore compliance with the&lt;br /&gt;Treaty, subject to any amendments which may be agreed between the&lt;br /&gt;Parties ;&lt;br /&gt;5. That the Republic of Hungary shall give appropriate guarantees that it&lt;br /&gt;will not impede the performance of the Treaty, and the continued&lt;br /&gt;operation of the system;&lt;br /&gt;6. That, in consequence of its breaches of the 1977 Treaty, the Republic of&lt;br /&gt;Hungary shall, in addition to immediately resuming performance of its&lt;br /&gt;Treaty obligations, pay to the Slovak Republic full compensation for&lt;br /&gt;the loss and damage, including loss of profits, caused by those breaches&lt;br /&gt;together with interest thereon;&lt;br /&gt;7. That the Parties shall immediately begin negotiations with a view, in&lt;br /&gt;particular, to adopting a new timetable and appropriate measures for&lt;br /&gt;the implementation of the Treaty by both Parties, and to fixing the&lt;br /&gt;amount of compensation due by the Republic of Hungary to the Slovak&lt;br /&gt;Republic; and that. if the Parties are unable to reach an agreement&lt;br /&gt;within six months, either one of them may request the Court to render&lt;br /&gt;an additional Judgment to determine the modalities for executing its&lt;br /&gt;Judgment."&lt;br /&gt;15. The present case arose out of the signature, on 16 September 1977,&lt;br /&gt;by the Hungarian People's Republic and the Czechoslovak People's&lt;br /&gt;Republic, of a treaty "concerning the construction and operation of the&lt;br /&gt;GabEikovo-Nagymaros System of Locks" (hereinafter called the "1977&lt;br /&gt;Treatv"). The names of the two contractine States have varied over the&lt;br /&gt;yearst hereinafter they will be referred touas Hungary and Czechoslovakia.&lt;br /&gt;The 1977 Treaty entered into force on 30 June 1978.&lt;br /&gt;It provides for the construction and operation of a System of Locks by&lt;br /&gt;the parties as a "joint investment". According to its Preamble, the barrage&lt;br /&gt;system was designed to attain&lt;br /&gt;"the broad utilization of the natural resources of the Bratislava-&lt;br /&gt;Budapest section of the Danube river for the development of water resources, energy, transport, agriculture and other sectors of the&lt;br /&gt;national economy of the Contracting Parties".&lt;br /&gt;The joint investment was thus essentially aimed at the production of&lt;br /&gt;hydroelectricity, the improvement of navigation on the relevant section&lt;br /&gt;of the Danube and the protection of the areas along the banks&lt;br /&gt;against flooding. At the same time, by the terms of the Treaty, the contracting&lt;br /&gt;parties undertook to ensure that the quality of water in the Danube&lt;br /&gt;was not impaired as a result of the Project, and that compliance with&lt;br /&gt;the obligations for the protection of nature arising in connection with the&lt;br /&gt;construction and operation of the System of Locks would be observed.&lt;br /&gt;16. The Danube is the second longest river in Europe, flowing along or&lt;br /&gt;across the borders of nine countries in its 2,860-kilometre course from the&lt;br /&gt;Black Forest eastwards to the Black Sea. For 142 kilometres, it forms the&lt;br /&gt;boundary between Slovakia and Hungary. The sector with which this&lt;br /&gt;case is concerned is a stretch of approximately 200 kilometres, between&lt;br /&gt;Bratislava in Slovakia and Budapest in Hungary. Below Bratislava, the&lt;br /&gt;river gradient decreases markedly, creating an alluvial plain of grave1 and&lt;br /&gt;sand sediment. This plain is delimited to the north-east, in Slovak territory,&lt;br /&gt;by the Maly Danube and to the south-west, in Hungarian territory,&lt;br /&gt;by the Mosoni Danube. The boundary between the two States is constituted,&lt;br /&gt;in the major part of that region, by the main channel of the river.&lt;br /&gt;The area lying between the Mali Danube and that channel, in Slovak&lt;br /&gt;territory, constitutes the ~ i t nOi s trov; the area between the main channe1&lt;br /&gt;and the Mosoni Danube, in Hungarian territory, constitutes the.&lt;br /&gt;Szigetkoz. Cunovo and, further downstream, GabCikovo, are situated in&lt;br /&gt;this sector of the river on Slovak territory, Cunovo on the right bank and&lt;br /&gt;GabCikovo on the left. Further downstream, after the confluence of the&lt;br /&gt;various branches, the river enters Hungarian territory and the topography&lt;br /&gt;becomes hillier. Nagymaros lies in a narrow valley at a bend in the&lt;br /&gt;Danube just before it turns south, enclosing the large river island of Szentendre&lt;br /&gt;before reaching Budapest (see sketch-map No. 1, p. 19 below).&lt;br /&gt;17. The Danube has always played a vital part in the commercial and&lt;br /&gt;economic development of its riparian States, and has underlined and&lt;br /&gt;reinforced their interdependence, making international CO-operation&lt;br /&gt;essential. Improvements to the navigation channel have enabled the Danube,&lt;br /&gt;now linked by canal to the Main and thence to the Rhine, to become&lt;br /&gt;an important navigational artery connecting the North Sea to the Black&lt;br /&gt;Sea. In the stretch of river to which the case relates, flood protection&lt;br /&gt;measures have been constructed over the centuries, farming and forestry&lt;br /&gt;practised, and, more recently, there has been an increase in population&lt;br /&gt;and industrial activity in the area. The cumulative effects on the river and&lt;br /&gt;on the environment of various human activities over the years have not&lt;br /&gt;al1 been favourable, particularly for the water régime. Only by international CO-operation could action be taken to alleviate&lt;br /&gt;these problems. Water management projects along the Danube have frequently&lt;br /&gt;sought to combine navigational improvements and flood protection&lt;br /&gt;with the production of electricity through hydroelectric power plants.&lt;br /&gt;The potential of the Danube for the production of hydroelectric power&lt;br /&gt;has been extensively exploited by some riparian States. The history of&lt;br /&gt;attempts to harness the potential of the particular stretch of the river at&lt;br /&gt;issue in these proceedings extends over a 25-year period culminating in&lt;br /&gt;the signature of the 1977 Treaty.&lt;br /&gt;18. Article 1, paragraph 1, of the 1977 Treaty describes the principal&lt;br /&gt;works to be constructed in pursuance of the Project. It provided for the&lt;br /&gt;building of two series of locks, one at Gabëikovo (in Czechoslovak territory)&lt;br /&gt;and the other at Nagymaros (in Hungarian territory), to constitute&lt;br /&gt;"a single and indivisible operational system of works" (see sketchmap&lt;br /&gt;No. 2, p. 21 below). The Court will subsequently have occasion to&lt;br /&gt;revert in more detail to those works, which were to comprise, inter alia, a&lt;br /&gt;reservoir upstream of Dunakiliti, in Hungarian and Czechoslovak territory;&lt;br /&gt;a dam at Dunakiliti, in Hungarian territory; a bypass canal, in&lt;br /&gt;Czechoslovak territory, on which was to be constructed the Gabcikovo&lt;br /&gt;System of Locks (together with a hydroelectric power plant with an&lt;br /&gt;installed capacity of 720 megawatts (MW)); the deepening of the bed of&lt;br /&gt;the Danube downstream of the place at which the bypass canal was to&lt;br /&gt;rejoin the old bed of the river; a reinforcement of flood-control works&lt;br /&gt;along the Danube upstream of Nagymaros; the Nagymaros System of&lt;br /&gt;Locks, in Hungarian territory (with a hydroelectric power plant of a&lt;br /&gt;capacity of 158 MW); and the deepening of the bed of the Danube down-&lt;br /&gt;Stream.&lt;br /&gt;Article 1, paragraph 4, of the Treaty further provided that the technical&lt;br /&gt;specifications concerning the system would be included in the "Joint&lt;br /&gt;Contractual Plan" which was to be drawn up in accordance with the&lt;br /&gt;Agreement signed by the two Governments for this purpose on 6 May&lt;br /&gt;1976; Article 4, paragraph 1, for its part, specified that "the joint investment&lt;br /&gt;[would] be carried out in conformity with the joint contractual&lt;br /&gt;plan".&lt;br /&gt;According to Article 3, paragraph 1 :&lt;br /&gt;"Operations connected with the realization of the joint investment&lt;br /&gt;and with the performance of tasks relating to the operation of the&lt;br /&gt;System of Locks shall be directed and supervised by the Governments&lt;br /&gt;of the Contracting Parties through . . . (. . . 'government&lt;br /&gt;delegates')."&lt;br /&gt;Those delegates had, inter alia, "to ensure that construction of the System&lt;br /&gt;of Locks is . . . carried out in accordance with the approved joint&lt;br /&gt;contractual plan and the project work schedule". When the works were&lt;br /&gt;brought into operation, they were moreover "To establish the operating and operational procedures of the System of Locks and ensure compliance&lt;br /&gt;therewith."&lt;br /&gt;Article 4, paragraph 4, stipulated that:&lt;br /&gt;"Operations relating to the joint investment [should] be organized&lt;br /&gt;by the Contracting Parties in such a way that the power generation&lt;br /&gt;plants [would] be put into service during the period 1986-1990."&lt;br /&gt;Article 5 provided that the cost of the joint investment would be borne&lt;br /&gt;by the contracting parties in equal measure. It specified the work to be&lt;br /&gt;carried out by each one of them. Article 8 further stipulated that the&lt;br /&gt;Dunakiliti dam, the bypass canal and the two series of locks at Gab-&lt;br /&gt;Cikovo and Nagymaros would be "jointly owned" by the contracting&lt;br /&gt;parties "in equal measure". Ownership of the other works was to be&lt;br /&gt;vested in the State on whose territory they were constructed.&lt;br /&gt;The parties were likewise to participate in equal measure in the use of&lt;br /&gt;the system put in place, and more particularly in the use of the base-load&lt;br /&gt;and peak-load power generated at ,the hydroelectric power plants&lt;br /&gt;(Art. 9).&lt;br /&gt;According to Article 10, the works were to be managed by the State on&lt;br /&gt;whose territory they were located, "in accordance with the jointly-agreed&lt;br /&gt;operating and operational procedures", while Article 12 stipulated that&lt;br /&gt;the operation, maintenance (repair) and reconstruction costs of jointly&lt;br /&gt;- owned works of the System of Locks were also to be borne jointly by the&lt;br /&gt;contracting parties in equal measure.&lt;br /&gt;According to Article 14,&lt;br /&gt;"The discharge specified in the water balance of the approved&lt;br /&gt;joint contractual plan shall be ensured in the bed of the Danube&lt;br /&gt;[between Dunakiliti and Sap] unless natural conditions or other circumstances&lt;br /&gt;temporarily require a greater or smaller discharge."&lt;br /&gt;Paragraph 3 of that Article was worded as follows:&lt;br /&gt;"In the event that the withdrawal of water in the Hungarian-&lt;br /&gt;Czechoslovak section of the Danube exceeds the quantities of water&lt;br /&gt;specified in the water balance of the approved joint contractual plan&lt;br /&gt;and the excess withdrawal results in a decrease in the output of&lt;br /&gt;electric power, the share of electric power of the Contracting Party&lt;br /&gt;benefiting from the excess withdrawal shall be correspondingly&lt;br /&gt;reduced."&lt;br /&gt;Article 15 specified that the contracting parties&lt;br /&gt;"shall ensure, by the means specified in the joint contractual plan,&lt;br /&gt;that the quality of the water in the Danube is not impaired as a&lt;br /&gt;result of the construction and operation of the System of Locks". Article 16 set forth the obligations of the contracting parties concerning&lt;br /&gt;the maintenance of the bed of the Danube.&lt;br /&gt;Article 18, paragraph 1, provided as follows :&lt;br /&gt;"The Contracting Parties, in conformity with the obligations previously&lt;br /&gt;assumed by them, and in particular with article 3 of the Convention&lt;br /&gt;concerning the regime of navigation on the Danube, signed&lt;br /&gt;at Belgrade on 18 August 1948, shall ensure uninterrupted and safe&lt;br /&gt;navigation on the international fairway both during the construction&lt;br /&gt;and during the operation of the System of Locks."&lt;br /&gt;It was stipulated in Article 19 that:&lt;br /&gt;"The Contracting Parties shall, through the means specified in the&lt;br /&gt;joint contractual plan, ensure compliance with the obligations for&lt;br /&gt;the protection of nature arising in connection with the construction&lt;br /&gt;and operation of the System of Locks."&lt;br /&gt;Article 20 provided for the contracting parties to take appropriate&lt;br /&gt;measures, within the framework of their national investments, for the&lt;br /&gt;protection of fishing interests in conformity with the Convention concerning&lt;br /&gt;Fishing in the Waters of the Danube, signed at Bucharest on&lt;br /&gt;29 January 1958.&lt;br /&gt;According to Article 22, paragraph 1, of the Treaty, the contracting&lt;br /&gt;parties had, in connection with the construction and operation of the&lt;br /&gt;System of Locks, agreed on minor revision to the course of the State&lt;br /&gt;frontier between them as follows:&lt;br /&gt;"(d) In the Dunakiliti-HruSov head-water area, the State frontier&lt;br /&gt;shall run from boundary point 161.V.O.A. to boundary stone&lt;br /&gt;No. 1.5. in a straight line in such a way that the territories&lt;br /&gt;affected, to the extent of about 10-10 hectares shall be offset&lt;br /&gt;between the two States."&lt;br /&gt;It was further provided, in paragraph 2, that the revision of the State&lt;br /&gt;frontier and the exchange of territories so provided for should be effected&lt;br /&gt;"by the Contracting Parties on the basis of a separate treaty". No such&lt;br /&gt;treaty was concluded.&lt;br /&gt;Finally a dispute settlement provision was contained in Article 27,&lt;br /&gt;worded as follows:&lt;br /&gt;"1. The settlement of disputes in matters relating to the realization&lt;br /&gt;and operation of the System of Locks shall be a function of the&lt;br /&gt;government delegates.&lt;br /&gt;2. If the government delegates are unable to reach agreement on&lt;br /&gt;the matters in dispute, they shall refer them to the Governments of&lt;br /&gt;the Contracting Parties for decision."&lt;br /&gt;19. The Joint Contractual Plan, referred to in the previous paragraph,&lt;br /&gt;set forth, on a large number of points, both the objectives of the system and the characteristics of the works. In its latest version it specified in&lt;br /&gt;paragraph 6.2 that the GabCikovo bypass canal would have a discharge&lt;br /&gt;capacity of 4,000 cubic metres per second (m3/s). The power plant would&lt;br /&gt;include "Eight . . . turbines with 9.20 m diameter running wheels" and&lt;br /&gt;would "mainly operate in peak-load time and continuously during high&lt;br /&gt;water". This type of operation would give an energy production of&lt;br /&gt;2,650 gigawattihours (GWh) per annum. The Plan further stipulated in&lt;br /&gt;paragraph 4.4.2 :&lt;br /&gt;"The low waters are stored every day, which ensures the peakload&lt;br /&gt;time operation of the GabEikovo hydropower plant . . . a minimum&lt;br /&gt;of 50 m3/s additional water is provided for the old bed [of the&lt;br /&gt;Danube] besides the water supply of the branch system."&lt;br /&gt;The Plan further specified that, in the event that the discharge into the&lt;br /&gt;bypass canal exceeded 4,000-4,500 m3/s, the excess amounts of water&lt;br /&gt;would be channelled into the old bed. Lastly, according to paragraph 7.7&lt;br /&gt;of the Plan:&lt;br /&gt;"The common operational regulation stipulates that concerning the&lt;br /&gt;operation of the Dunakiliti barrage in the event of need during the&lt;br /&gt;growing season 200 m3/s discharge must be released into the old Danube&lt;br /&gt;bed, in addition to the occasional possibilities for rinsing the bed."&lt;br /&gt;The Joint Contractual Plan also contained "Preliminary Operating and&lt;br /&gt;Maintenance Rules", Article 23 of which specified that "The final operating&lt;br /&gt;rules [should] be approved within a year of the setting into operation&lt;br /&gt;of the system." (Joint Contractual Plan, Summary Documentation,&lt;br /&gt;Vol. 0-1-A.)&lt;br /&gt;Nagymaros, with six turbines, was, according to paragraph 6.3 of&lt;br /&gt;the Plan, to be a "hydropower station . . . type of a basic power-station&lt;br /&gt;capable of operating in peak-load time for five hours at the discharge&lt;br /&gt;interval between 1,000-2,500 m3/s" per day. The intended annual production&lt;br /&gt;was to be 1,025 GWh (Le., 38 per cent of the production of GabEikovo,&lt;br /&gt;for an installed power only equal to 21 per cent of that of GabCikovo).&lt;br /&gt;20. Thus, the Project was to have taken the form of an integrated joint&lt;br /&gt;project with the two contracting parties on an equal footing in respect of&lt;br /&gt;the financing, construction and operation of the works. Its single and&lt;br /&gt;indivisible nature was to have been realized through the Joint Contractua1&lt;br /&gt;Plan which complemented the Treaty. In particular, Hungary would&lt;br /&gt;have had control of the sluices at Dunakiliti and the works at Nagymaros,&lt;br /&gt;whereas Czechoslovakia would have had control of the works at&lt;br /&gt;GabCikovo.&lt;br /&gt;21. The schedule of work had for its part been fixed in an Agreement&lt;br /&gt;on mutual assistance signed by the two parties on 16 September 1977, at the same time as the Treaty itself. The Agreement moreover made some&lt;br /&gt;adjustments to the allocation of the works between the parties as laid&lt;br /&gt;down by the Treaty.&lt;br /&gt;Work on the Project started in 1978. On Hungary's initiative, the two&lt;br /&gt;parties first agreed, by two Protocols signed on 10 October 1983 (one&lt;br /&gt;amending Article 4, paragraph 4, of the 1977 Treaty and the other the&lt;br /&gt;Agreement on mutual assistance), to slow the work down and to postpone&lt;br /&gt;putting into operation the power plants, and then, by a Protocol&lt;br /&gt;signed on 6 February 1989 (which amended the Agreement on mutual&lt;br /&gt;assistance), to accelerate the Project.&lt;br /&gt;22. As a result of intense criticism which the Project had generated in&lt;br /&gt;Hungary, the Hungarian Government decided on 13 May 1989 to suspend&lt;br /&gt;the works at Nagymaros pending the completion of various studies&lt;br /&gt;which the competent authorities were to finish before 31 July 1989. On&lt;br /&gt;21 July 1989, the Hungarian Government extended the suspension of the&lt;br /&gt;works at Nagymaros until 31 October 1989, and, in addition, suspended&lt;br /&gt;the works at Dunakiliti until the same date. Lastly, on 27 October 1989,&lt;br /&gt;Hungary decided to abandon the works at Nagymaros and to maintain&lt;br /&gt;the status quo at Dunakiliti.&lt;br /&gt;23. During this period, negotiations were being held between the&lt;br /&gt;parties. Czechoslovakia also started investigating alternative solutions.&lt;br /&gt;One of them, subsequently known as "Variant CM, entailed a unilateral&lt;br /&gt;diversion of the Danube by Czechoslovakia on its territory some 10 kilometres&lt;br /&gt;upstream of Dunakiliti (see sketch-map Nol 3, p. 26 below). In its&lt;br /&gt;final stage, Variant C included the construction at Cunovo of an overflow&lt;br /&gt;dam and a levee linking that dam to the south bank of the bypass canal.&lt;br /&gt;The corresponding reservoir was to have a smaller surface area and provide&lt;br /&gt;approximately 30 per cent less storage than the reservoir initially&lt;br /&gt;contemplated. Provision was made for ancillary works, namely: an intake&lt;br /&gt;structure to supply the Mosoni Danube; a weir to enable, inter dia,&lt;br /&gt;floodwater to be directed along the old bed of the Danube: an auxiliary&lt;br /&gt;shiplock; and two hydroelectric power plants (one capable of an aniiual&lt;br /&gt;production of 4 GWh on the Mosoni Danube, and the other with a production&lt;br /&gt;of 174 GWh on the old bed of the Danube). The supply of water&lt;br /&gt;to the side-arms of the Danube on the Czechoslovak bank was to be&lt;br /&gt;secured by means of two intake structures in the bypass canal at&lt;br /&gt;DobrohoSt' and GabEikovo. A solution was to be found for the Hungarian&lt;br /&gt;bank. Moreover, the question of the deepening of the bed of the Danube&lt;br /&gt;at the confluence of the bypass canal and the old bed of the river&lt;br /&gt;remained outstanding.&lt;br /&gt;On 23 July 1991, the Slovak Government decided "to begin, in September&lt;br /&gt;1991, construction to put the GabEikovo Project into operation&lt;br /&gt;by the provisional solution". That decision was endorsed by the Federal&lt;br /&gt;Czechoslovak Government on 25 July. Work on Variant C began&lt;br /&gt;in November 1991. Discussions continued between the two parties but to&lt;br /&gt;no avail, and, on 19 May 1992, the Hungarian Government transmitted to the Czechoslovak Government a Note Verbale terminating the 1977&lt;br /&gt;Treaty with effect from 25 May 1992. On 15 October 1992, Czechoslovakia&lt;br /&gt;began work to enable the Danube to be closed and, starting on&lt;br /&gt;23 October, proceeded to the damming of the river.&lt;br /&gt;24. On 23 October 1992, the Court was seised of an "Application of&lt;br /&gt;the Republic of Hungary v. The Czech and Slovak Federal Republic on&lt;br /&gt;the Diversion of the Danube River"; however, Hungary acknowledged&lt;br /&gt;that there was no basis on which the Court could have founded its jurisdiction&lt;br /&gt;to entertain that application, on which Czechoslovakia took no&lt;br /&gt;action. In the meanwhile, the Commission of the European Communities&lt;br /&gt;had offered to mediate and, during a meeting of the two parties with the&lt;br /&gt;Commission held in London on 28 October 1992, the parties entered into&lt;br /&gt;a series of interim undertakings. They principally agreed that the dispute&lt;br /&gt;would be submitted to the International Court of Justice, that a tripartite&lt;br /&gt;fact-finding mission should report on Variant C not later than 31 October,&lt;br /&gt;and that a tripartite group of independent experts would submit suggestions&lt;br /&gt;as to emergency measures to be taken.&lt;br /&gt;25. On 1 January 1993 Slovakia became an independent State. On&lt;br /&gt;7 April 1993, the "Special Agreement for Submission to the International&lt;br /&gt;Court of Justice of the Differences between the Republic of Hungary and&lt;br /&gt;the Slovak Republic concerning the GabEikovo-Nagymaros Project" was&lt;br /&gt;signed in Brussels, the text of which is reproduced in paragraph 2 above.&lt;br /&gt;After the Special Agreement was notified to the Court, Hungary informed&lt;br /&gt;the Court, by a letter dated 9 August 1993, that it considered its "initial&lt;br /&gt;Application [to bel now without object, and . . . lapsed".&lt;br /&gt;According to Article 4 of the Special Agreement, "The Parties [agreed]&lt;br /&gt;that, pending the final Judgment of the Court, they [would] establish and&lt;br /&gt;implement a temporary water management régime for the Danube."&lt;br /&gt;However, this régime could not easily be settled. The filling of the&lt;br /&gt;~ u n o v oda m had rapidly led to a major reduction in the flow and in the&lt;br /&gt;level of the downstream waters in the old bed of the Danube as well as in&lt;br /&gt;the side-arms of the river. On 26 August 1993, Hungary and Slovakia&lt;br /&gt;reached agreement on the setting up of a tripartite group of experts (one&lt;br /&gt;expert designated by each party and three independent experts designated&lt;br /&gt;by the Commission of the European Communities)&lt;br /&gt;"In order to provide reliable and undisputed data on the most&lt;br /&gt;important effects of the current water discharge and the remedial&lt;br /&gt;measures already undertaken as well as to make recommendations&lt;br /&gt;for appropriate measures."&lt;br /&gt;On 1 December 1993, the experts designated by the Commission of the&lt;br /&gt;European Communities recommended the adoption of various measures&lt;br /&gt;to remedy the situation on a temporary basis. The Parties were unable to&lt;br /&gt;agree on these recommendations. After lengthy negotiations, they finally&lt;br /&gt;concluded an Agreement "concerning Certain Temporary Technical Measures&lt;br /&gt;and Discharges in the Danube and Mosoni branch of the Danube",&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;on 19 April 1995. That Agreement raised the discharge of water into the&lt;br /&gt;Mosoni Danube to 43 m3/s. It provided for an annual average of 400 m3/s&lt;br /&gt;in the old bed (not including flood waters). Lastly, it provided for the construction&lt;br /&gt;by Hungary of a partially underwater weir near to Dunakiliti&lt;br /&gt;with a view to improving the water supply to the side-arms of the Danube&lt;br /&gt;on the Hungarian side. It was specified that this temporary agreement&lt;br /&gt;would come to an end 14 days after the Judgment of the Court.&lt;br /&gt;26. The first subparagraph of the Preamble to the Special Agreement&lt;br /&gt;covers the disputes arising between Czechoslovakia and Hungary concerning&lt;br /&gt;the application and termination, not only of the 1977 Treaty, but&lt;br /&gt;also of "related instruments"; the subparagraph specifies that, for the&lt;br /&gt;purposes of the Special Agreement, the 1977 Treaty and the said instruments&lt;br /&gt;shall be referred to as "the Treaty". "The Treaty" is expressly&lt;br /&gt;referred to in the wording of the questions submitted to the Court in&lt;br /&gt;Article 2, paragraph 1, subparagraphs (a) and ( c i , of the Special&lt;br /&gt;Agreement.&lt;br /&gt;The Special Agreement however does not define the concept of "related&lt;br /&gt;instruments", nor does it list them. As for the Parties, they gave some&lt;br /&gt;consideration to that question - essentially in the written proceedings -&lt;br /&gt;without reaching agreement as to the exact meaning of the expression or&lt;br /&gt;as to the actual instruments referred to. The Court notes however that&lt;br /&gt;the Parties seemed to agree to consider that that expression covers at&lt;br /&gt;least the instruments linked to the 1977 Treaty which implement it, such&lt;br /&gt;as the Agreement on mutual assistance of 16 September 1977 and its&lt;br /&gt;amending Protocols dated, respectively, 10 October 1983 and 6 February&lt;br /&gt;1989 (see paragraph 21 above), and the Agreement as to the common&lt;br /&gt;operational regulations of Plenipotentiaries fulfilling duties related to the&lt;br /&gt;construction and operation of the Gabtikovo-Nagymaros Barrage System&lt;br /&gt;signed in Bratislava on 11 October 1979. The Court notes that Hungary,&lt;br /&gt;unlike Slovakia, declined to apply the description of related instruments&lt;br /&gt;to the 1977 Treaty to the Joint Contractual Plan (see paragraph 19&lt;br /&gt;above), which it refused to see as "an agreement at the same level as the&lt;br /&gt;other . . . related Treaties and inter-State agreements".&lt;br /&gt;Lastly the Court notes that the Parties, in setting out the replies which&lt;br /&gt;should in their view be given to the questions put in the Special Agree- ,&lt;br /&gt;ment, concentrated their reasoning on the 1977 Treaty; and that they&lt;br /&gt;would appear to have extended their arguments to "related instruments"&lt;br /&gt;in considering them as accessories to a whole treaty system, whose fate&lt;br /&gt;was in principle linked to that of the main part, the 1977 Treaty. The&lt;br /&gt;Court takes note of the positions of the Parties and considers that it does&lt;br /&gt;not need to go into this matter further at this juncture.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;27. The Court will now turn to a consideration of the questions&lt;br /&gt;submitted by the Parties. In terms of Article 2, paragraph 1 ( a ) , of the&lt;br /&gt;Special Agreement, the Court is requested to decide first&lt;br /&gt;"whether the Republic of Hungary was entitled to suspend and subsequently&lt;br /&gt;abandon, in 1989, the works on the Nagymaros Project&lt;br /&gt;and on the part of the GabCikovo Project for which the Treaty&lt;br /&gt;attributed responsibility to the Republic of Hungary".&lt;br /&gt;28. The Court would recall that the Gabrikovo-Nagymaros System of&lt;br /&gt;Locks is characterized in Article 1, paragraph 1, of the 1977 Treaty as a&lt;br /&gt;"single and indivisible operational system of works".&lt;br /&gt;The principal works which were to constitute this system have been&lt;br /&gt;described in general terms above (see paragraph 18). Details of them are&lt;br /&gt;given in paragraphs 2 and 3 of Article 1 of the Treaty.&lt;br /&gt;For GabMkovo, paragraph 2 lists the following works:&lt;br /&gt;" ( a ) the Dunakiliti-HruSov head-water installations in the Danube&lt;br /&gt;sector at r.km. (river kilometre(s)) 1860-1 842, designed for a&lt;br /&gt;maximum flood stage of 13 1.10 m.B. (metres above sea-level.&lt;br /&gt;Baltic system), in Hungarian and Czechoslovak territory;&lt;br /&gt;(6) the Dunakiliti dam and auxiliary navigation lock at r.km.&lt;br /&gt;1842, in Hungarian territory ;&lt;br /&gt;( c ) the by-pass canal (head-water canal and tail-water canal) at&lt;br /&gt;r.km. 1842-1 8 1 1, in Czechoslovak territory ;&lt;br /&gt;(rl) series of locks on the by-pass canal, in Czechoslovak territory,&lt;br /&gt;consisting of a hydroelectric power plant with installed capacity&lt;br /&gt;of 720 MW, double navigation locks and appurtenances&lt;br /&gt;thereto ;&lt;br /&gt;(el improved old bed of the Danube at r.km. 1842-1811, in the&lt;br /&gt;joint Hungarian-Czechoslovak section;&lt;br /&gt;( f ) deepened and regulated bed of the Danube at r.km. 1811-&lt;br /&gt;1791, in the joint Hungarian-Czechoslovak section."&lt;br /&gt;For Nagymaros, paragraph 3 specifies the following works:&lt;br /&gt;" ( a ) head-water installations and flood-control works in the&lt;br /&gt;Danube sector at r.km. 1791-1696.25 and in the sectors of&lt;br /&gt;tributaries affected by flood waters, designed for a maximum&lt;br /&gt;flood stage of 107.83 m.B., in Hungarian and Czechoslovak&lt;br /&gt;territory;&lt;br /&gt;( 6 ) series of locks at r.km. 1696.25, in Hungarian territory, consisting&lt;br /&gt;of a dam, a hydroelectric power plant with installed&lt;br /&gt;capacity of 158 MW, double navigation locks and appurtenances&lt;br /&gt;thereto;&lt;br /&gt;( c i deepened and regulated bed of the Danube, in both its&lt;br /&gt;branches, at r.km. 1696.25-1657, in the Hungarian section."&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;29. Moreover, the precise breakdown of the works incumbent on each&lt;br /&gt;party was set out in Article 5, paragraph 5, of the 1977 Treaty, as follows:&lt;br /&gt;"5. The labour and supplies required for the realization of the&lt;br /&gt;joint investment shall be apportioned between the Contracting&lt;br /&gt;Parties in the following manner:&lt;br /&gt;(a) The Czechoslovak Party shall be responsible for:&lt;br /&gt;(1) the Dunakiliti-HruSov head-water installations on the left&lt;br /&gt;bank, in Czechoslovak territory ;&lt;br /&gt;(2) the head-water canal of the by-pass canal, in Czechoslovak&lt;br /&gt;territory ;&lt;br /&gt;(3) the GabCikovo series of locks, in Czechoslovak territory ;&lt;br /&gt;(4) the flood-control works of the Nagymaros head-water&lt;br /&gt;installations, in Czechoslovak territory, with the exception&lt;br /&gt;of the lower Ipel district;&lt;br /&gt;(5) restoration of vegetation in Czechoslovak territory;&lt;br /&gt;(b) The Hungarian Party shall be responsible for&lt;br /&gt;(1) the Dunakiliti-HruSov head-water installations on the&lt;br /&gt;right bank, in Czechoslovak territory, including the connecting&lt;br /&gt;weir and the diversionary weir;&lt;br /&gt;(2) the Dunakiliti-HruSov head-water installations on the&lt;br /&gt;right bank, in Hungarian territory ;&lt;br /&gt;(3) the Dunakiliti dam, in Hungarian territory;&lt;br /&gt;(4) the tail-water canal of the by-pass canal, in Czechoslovak&lt;br /&gt;territory;&lt;br /&gt;(5) deepening of the bed of the Danube below Palkovicovo,&lt;br /&gt;in Hungarian and Czechoslovak territory ;&lt;br /&gt;(6) improvement of the old bed of the Danube, in Hungarian&lt;br /&gt;and Czechoslovak territory ;&lt;br /&gt;(7) operational equipment of the GabCikovo system of locks&lt;br /&gt;(transport equipment, maintenance machinery), in Czechoslovak&lt;br /&gt;territory ;&lt;br /&gt;(8) the flood-control works of the Nagymaros head-water&lt;br /&gt;installations in the lower Ipel district, in Czechoslovak&lt;br /&gt;territory ;&lt;br /&gt;(9) the flood-control works of the Nagymaros head-water&lt;br /&gt;installations, in Hungarian territory;&lt;br /&gt;(10) the Nagymaros series of locks, in Hungarian territory;&lt;br /&gt;(11) deepening of the tail-water bed below the Nagymaros&lt;br /&gt;system of locks, in Hungarian territory;&lt;br /&gt;(12) operational equipment of the Nagymaros system of locks&lt;br /&gt;(transport equipment, maintenance machinery), in Hungarian&lt;br /&gt;territory ;&lt;br /&gt;(13) restoration of vegetation in Hungarian territory."&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;30. As the Court has already indicated (see paragraph 18 above), Article&lt;br /&gt;1, paragraph 4, of the 1977 Treaty stipulated in general terms that&lt;br /&gt;the "technical specifications" concerning the System of Locks would be&lt;br /&gt;included in the "ioint contractual dan". The schedule of work had for its&lt;br /&gt;part been fixed in an Agreement on mutual assistance signed by the two&lt;br /&gt;parties on 16 September 1977 (see paragraph 21 above). In accordance&lt;br /&gt;with the provisions of Article 1, paragraph 1, of that Agreement, the&lt;br /&gt;whole of the works of the barrage svstem were to have been comoleted in . + ,&lt;br /&gt;1991. As indicated in paragraph 2 of that same article, a summary construction&lt;br /&gt;schedule was appended to the Agreement, and provision was&lt;br /&gt;made for a more detailed schedule to be worked out in the Joint Contractual&lt;br /&gt;Plan. The Agreement of 16 September 1977 was twice amended&lt;br /&gt;further. By a Protocol signed on 10 October 1983, the parties agreed first&lt;br /&gt;to postpone the works and the putting into operation of the power plants&lt;br /&gt;for four more years; then, by a Protocol signed on 6 February 1989, the&lt;br /&gt;parties decided, conversely, to bring them forward by 15 months, the&lt;br /&gt;whole system having to be operational in 1994. A new summary construction&lt;br /&gt;schedule was appended to each of those Protocols; those schedules&lt;br /&gt;were in turn to be implemented by means of new detailed schedules,&lt;br /&gt;included in the Joint Contractual Plan.&lt;br /&gt;31. In spring 1989, the work on the GabCikovo sector was well&lt;br /&gt;advanced: the Dunakiliti dam was 90 per cent complete, the Gabëikovo&lt;br /&gt;dam was 85 per cent complete, and the bypass canal was between 60 per&lt;br /&gt;cent complete (downstream of Gabcikovo) and 95 per cent complete&lt;br /&gt;(upstream of GabCikovo) and the dykes of the Dunakiliti-HruSov reservoir&lt;br /&gt;were between 70 and 98 per cent complete, depending on the location.&lt;br /&gt;This was not the case in the Nagymaros sector where, although&lt;br /&gt;dykes had been built, the only structure relating to the dam itself was the&lt;br /&gt;coffer-dam which was to facilitate its construction.&lt;br /&gt;32. In the wake of the profound political and economic changes which&lt;br /&gt;occurred at this time in central Europe, the Gabcikovo-Nagymaros&lt;br /&gt;Project was the object, in Czechoslovakia and more particularly in Hungary,&lt;br /&gt;of increasing apprehension, both within a section of public opinion&lt;br /&gt;and in some scientific circles. The uncertainties not only about the economic&lt;br /&gt;viability of the Project, but also, and more so, as to the guarantees&lt;br /&gt;it offered for preservation of the environment, engendered a climate of&lt;br /&gt;growing concern and opposition with regard to the Project.&lt;br /&gt;33. It was against this background that, on 13 May 1989, the Government&lt;br /&gt;of Hungary adopted a resolution to suspend works at Nagymaros,&lt;br /&gt;and ordered&lt;br /&gt;"the Ministers concerned to commission further studies in order to&lt;br /&gt;place the Council of Ministers in a position where it can make wellfounded&lt;br /&gt;suggestions to the Parliament in connection with the amendment&lt;br /&gt;of the international treaty on the investment. In the interests of&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;the above, we must examine the international and legal consequences,&lt;br /&gt;the technical considerations, the obligations related to continuous&lt;br /&gt;navigation on the Danube and the environmental/ecological&lt;br /&gt;and seismic impacts of the eventual stopping of the Nagymaros&lt;br /&gt;investment. To be further examined are the opportunities for the&lt;br /&gt;replacement of the lost electric energy and the procedures for minimising&lt;br /&gt;claims for compensation."&lt;br /&gt;The suspension of the works at Nagymaros was intended to last for the&lt;br /&gt;duration of these studies, which were to be completed by 31 July 1989.&lt;br /&gt;Czechoslovakia immediately protested and a document defining the position&lt;br /&gt;of Czechoslovakia was transmitted to the Ambassador of Hungary&lt;br /&gt;in Prague on 15 May 1989. The Prime Ministers of the two countries met&lt;br /&gt;on 24 May 1989, but their talks did not lead to any tangible result. On&lt;br /&gt;2 June, the Hungarian Parliament authorized the Government to begin&lt;br /&gt;negotiations with Czechoslovakia for the purpose of modifying the 1977&lt;br /&gt;Treaty.&lt;br /&gt;34. At a meeting held by the Plenipotentiaries on 8 and 9 June 1989,&lt;br /&gt;Hungary gave Czechoslovakia a number of assurances concerning the&lt;br /&gt;continuation of works in the GabCikovo sector, and the signed Protocol&lt;br /&gt;which records that meeting contains the following passage:&lt;br /&gt;"The Hungarian Government Commissioner and the Hungarian&lt;br /&gt;Plenipotentiary stated, that the Hungarian side will complete construction&lt;br /&gt;of the GabCikovo Project in the agreed time and in accordance&lt;br /&gt;with the project plans. Directives have already been given to&lt;br /&gt;continue works suspended in the area due to misunderstanding."&lt;br /&gt;These assurances were reiterated in a letter that the Commissioner of the&lt;br /&gt;Government of Hungary addressed to the Czechoslovak Plenipotentiary&lt;br /&gt;on 9 June 1989.&lt;br /&gt;3.5. With regard to the suspension of work at Nagymaros, the Hungarian&lt;br /&gt;Deputy Prime Minister, in a letter dated 24 June 1989 addressed to his&lt;br /&gt;Czechoslovak counterpart, expressed himself in the following terms:&lt;br /&gt;"The Hungarian Academy of Sciences (HAS) has studied the environmental,&lt;br /&gt;ecological and water quality as well as the seismological&lt;br /&gt;impacts of abandoning or implementing the Nagymaros Barrage of&lt;br /&gt;the GabCikovo-Nagymaros Barrage System (GNBS).&lt;br /&gt;. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .&lt;br /&gt;Having studied the expected impacts of the construction in accordance&lt;br /&gt;with the original plan, the Committee [ad hoc] of the Academy&lt;br /&gt;[set up for this purpose] came to the conclusion that we do not have&lt;br /&gt;adequate knowledge of the consequences of environmental risks.&lt;br /&gt;In its opinion, the risk of constructing the Barrage System in&lt;br /&gt;accordance with the original plan cannot be considered acceptable.&lt;br /&gt;Of course, it cannot be stated either that the adverse impacts will ensue for certain, therefore, according to their recommendation,&lt;br /&gt;further thorough and time consuming studies are necessary."&lt;br /&gt;36. The Hungarian and Czechoslovak Prime Ministers met again on&lt;br /&gt;20 July 1989 to no avail. lmmediately after that meeting, the Hungarian&lt;br /&gt;Government adopted a second resolution, under which the suspension of&lt;br /&gt;work at Nagymaros was extended to 31 October 1989. However, this&lt;br /&gt;resolution went further, as it also prescribed the suspension, until the&lt;br /&gt;same date, of the "Preparatory works on the closure of the riverbed at&lt;br /&gt;. . . Dunakiliti"; the purpose of this measure was to invite "international&lt;br /&gt;scientific institutions [and] foreign scientific institutes and experts" to cooperate&lt;br /&gt;with "the Hungarian and Czechoslovak institutes and experts"&lt;br /&gt;with a view to an assessment of the ecological impact of the Project and&lt;br /&gt;the "development of a technical and operational water quality guarantee&lt;br /&gt;system and . . . its implementation".&lt;br /&gt;37. In the ensuing period, negotiations were conducted at various levels&lt;br /&gt;between the two States, but proved fruitless. Finally, by a letter dated&lt;br /&gt;4 October 1989, the Hungarian Prime Minister formally proposed to&lt;br /&gt;Czechoslovakia that the Nagymaros sector of the Project be abandoned&lt;br /&gt;and that an agreement be concluded with a view to reducing the ecological&lt;br /&gt;risks associated with the Gabëikovo sector of the Project. He proposed&lt;br /&gt;that that agreement should be concluded before 30 July 1990.&lt;br /&gt;The two Heads of Government met on 26 October 1989, and were&lt;br /&gt;unable to reach agreement. By a Note Verbale dated 30 October 1989,&lt;br /&gt;Czechoslovakia, confirming the views it had expressed during those talks,&lt;br /&gt;proposed to Hungary that they should negotiate an agreement on a system&lt;br /&gt;of technical, operational and ecological guarantees relating to the&lt;br /&gt;Gabëikovo-Nagymaros Project, "on the assumption that the Hungarian&lt;br /&gt;party will immediately commence preparatory work on the refilling of the&lt;br /&gt;Danube's bed in the region of Dunakiliti". It added that the technical&lt;br /&gt;principles of the agreement could be initialled within two weeks and that&lt;br /&gt;the agreement itself ought to be signed before the end of March 1990.&lt;br /&gt;After the principles had been initialled, Hungary "[was to] start the actual&lt;br /&gt;closure of the Danube bed". Czechoslovakia further stated its willingness&lt;br /&gt;to "conclu[de] . . . a separate agreement in which both parties would&lt;br /&gt;oblige themselves to limitations or exclusion of peak hour operation&lt;br /&gt;mode of the . . . System". It also proposed "to return to deadlines indicated&lt;br /&gt;in the Protocol of October 1983", the Nagymaros construction&lt;br /&gt;deadlines being thus extended by 15 months, so as to enable Hungary to&lt;br /&gt;take advantage of the time thus gained to study the ecological issues and&lt;br /&gt;formulate its own proposais in due time. Czechoslovakia concluded by&lt;br /&gt;announcing that, should Hungary continue unilaterally to breach the&lt;br /&gt;Treaty, Czechoslovakia would proceed with a provisional solution.&lt;br /&gt;In the meantime, the Hungarian Government had on 27 October&lt;br /&gt;adopted a further resolution, deciding to abandon the construction of the&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Nagymaros dam and to leave in place the measures previously adopted&lt;br /&gt;for suspending the works at Dunakiliti. Then, by Notes Verbales dated&lt;br /&gt;3 and 30 November 1989, Hungary proposed to Czechoslovakia a draft&lt;br /&gt;treaty incorporating its earlier proposals, relinquishing peak power operation&lt;br /&gt;of the Gabëikovo power plant and abandoning the construction of&lt;br /&gt;the Nagymaros dam. The draft provided for the conclusion of an agreement&lt;br /&gt;on the completion of Gabëikovo in exchange for guarantees on&lt;br /&gt;protection of the environment. It finally envisaged the possibility of one&lt;br /&gt;or other party seising an arbitral tribunal or the International Court of&lt;br /&gt;Justice in the event that differences of view arose and persisted between&lt;br /&gt;the two Governments about the construction and operation of the Gab-&lt;br /&gt;Cikovo dam, as well as measures to be taken to protect the environment.&lt;br /&gt;Hungary stated that it was ready to proceed immediately "with the preparatory&lt;br /&gt;operations for the Dunakiliti bed-decanting", but specified that&lt;br /&gt;the river would not be dammed at Dunakiliti until the agreement on&lt;br /&gt;guarantees had been concluded.&lt;br /&gt;38. During winter 1989-1990, the political situation in Czechoslovakia&lt;br /&gt;and Hungary alike was transformed, and the new Governments were&lt;br /&gt;confronted with many new problems.&lt;br /&gt;In spring 1990. the new Hungarian Government, in presenting its&lt;br /&gt;National Renewal Programme, announced that the whole of the Gabëikovo-&lt;br /&gt;Nagymaros Project was a "mistake" and that it would initiate&lt;br /&gt;negotiations as soon as possible with the Czechoslovak Government "on&lt;br /&gt;remedying and sharing the damages". On 20 December 1990, the Hungarian&lt;br /&gt;Government adopted a resolution for the opening of negotiations&lt;br /&gt;with Czechoslovakia on the termination of the Treatv, bv, mutual consent&lt;br /&gt;and the conclusion of an agreement addressing the consequences of the&lt;br /&gt;termination. On 15 February 1991, the Hungarian Plenipotentiary transmitted&lt;br /&gt;a draft agreement along those lines to his Czechoslovak counterpart.&lt;br /&gt;On the same day, the Czechoslovak President declared that the Gab-&lt;br /&gt;Cikovo-Nagymaros Project constituted a "totalitarian, gigomaniac monument&lt;br /&gt;which is against nature", while emphasizing that "the problem [was]&lt;br /&gt;that [the Gabëikovo power plant] [had] already been built". For his part,&lt;br /&gt;the Czechoslovak Minister of the Environment stated, in a speech given&lt;br /&gt;to Hungarian parliamentary committees on 1 1 September 1991, that "the&lt;br /&gt;G/N Project [was] an old, obsolete one", but that, if there were "many&lt;br /&gt;reasons to change, modify the treaty . . . it [was] not acceptable to cancel&lt;br /&gt;the treaty . . . and negotiate later on".&lt;br /&gt;During the ensuing period, Hungary refrained from completing the&lt;br /&gt;work for which it was still responsible at Dunakiliti. Yet it continued to&lt;br /&gt;maintain the structures it had already built and, at the end of 1991, completed&lt;br /&gt;the works relating to the tailrace canal of the bypass canal assigned&lt;br /&gt;to it under Article 5, paragraph 5 (b), of the 1977 Treaty.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;39. The two Parties to this case concur in recognizing that the 1977&lt;br /&gt;Treaty, the above-mentioned Agreement on mutual assistance of 1977&lt;br /&gt;and the Protocol of 1989 were validly concluded and were duly in force&lt;br /&gt;when the facts recounted above took place.&lt;br /&gt;Further, they do not dispute the fact that, however flexible they may&lt;br /&gt;have been, these texts did not envisage the possibility of the signatories&lt;br /&gt;unilaterally suspending or abandoning the work provided for therein, or&lt;br /&gt;even carrying it out according to a new schedule not approved by the two&lt;br /&gt;partners.&lt;br /&gt;40. Throughout the proceedings, Hungary contended that, although it&lt;br /&gt;did suspend or abandon certain works, on the contrary, it never suspended&lt;br /&gt;the application of the 1977 Treaty itself. To justify its conduct, it&lt;br /&gt;relied essentially on a "state of ecological necessity".&lt;br /&gt;Hungary contended that the various installations in the GabEikovo-&lt;br /&gt;Nagymaros System of Locks had been designed to enable the Gabtikovo&lt;br /&gt;power plant to operate in peak mode. Water would only have come&lt;br /&gt;through the plant twice each day, at times of peak power demand. Operation&lt;br /&gt;in peak mode required the vast expanse (60 km') of the planned&lt;br /&gt;reservoir at Dunakiliti, as well as the Nagymaros dam, which was to&lt;br /&gt;alleviate the tidal effects and reduce the variation in the water level down-&lt;br /&gt;Stream of Gabtikovo. Such a system, considered to be more economically&lt;br /&gt;profitable than using run-of-the-river plants, carried ecological risks&lt;br /&gt;which it found unacceptable.&lt;br /&gt;According to Hungary, the principal ecological dangers which would&lt;br /&gt;have been caused by this system were as follows. At GabMkovoi&lt;br /&gt;Dunakiliti, under the original Project, as specified in the Joint Contractua1&lt;br /&gt;Plan, the residual discharge into the old bed of the Danube was&lt;br /&gt;limited to 50 m3/s, in addition to the water provided to the system of sidearms.&lt;br /&gt;That volume could be increased to 200 m3/s during the growing&lt;br /&gt;season. Additional discharges, and in particular a number of artificial&lt;br /&gt;floods, could also be effected, at an unspecified rate. In these circumstances,&lt;br /&gt;the groundwater level would have fallen in most of the Szigetkoz.&lt;br /&gt;Furthermore, the groundwater would then no longer have been supplied&lt;br /&gt;by the Danube - which, on the contrary, would have acted as a drain -&lt;br /&gt;but by the reservoir of stagnant water at Dunakiliti and the side-arms&lt;br /&gt;which would have become silted up. In the long term, the quality of water&lt;br /&gt;would have been seriously impaired. As for the surface water, risks of&lt;br /&gt;eutrophication would have arisen, particularly in the reservoir; instead of&lt;br /&gt;the old Danube there would have been a river choked with sand, where&lt;br /&gt;only a relative trickle of water would have flowed. The network of arms&lt;br /&gt;would have been for the most part cut off from the principal bed. The&lt;br /&gt;fluvial fauna and flora, like those in the alluvial plains, would have been&lt;br /&gt;condemned to extinction.&lt;br /&gt;As for Nagymaros, Hungary argued that, if that dam had been built,&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;the bed of the Danube upstream would have silted up and, consequently,&lt;br /&gt;the quality of the water collected in the bank-filtered wells would have&lt;br /&gt;deteriorated in this sector. What is more, the operation of the Gabëikovo&lt;br /&gt;power plant in peak mode would have occasioned significant daily variations&lt;br /&gt;in the water level in the reservoir upstream, which would have constituted&lt;br /&gt;a threat to aquatic habitats in particular. Furthermore, the construction&lt;br /&gt;and operation of the Nagymaros dam would have caused the&lt;br /&gt;erosion of the riverbed downstream, along Szentendre Island. The water&lt;br /&gt;level of the river would therefore have fallen in this section and the yield&lt;br /&gt;of the bank-filtered wells providing two-thirds of the water supply of the&lt;br /&gt;city of Budapest would have appreciably diminished. The filter layer&lt;br /&gt;would also have shrunk or perhaps even disappeared, and fine sediments&lt;br /&gt;would have been deposited in certain pockets in the river. For this twofold&lt;br /&gt;reason, the quality of the infiltrating water would have been severely&lt;br /&gt;jeopardized.&lt;br /&gt;From al1 these predictions, in support of which it quoted a variety of&lt;br /&gt;scientific studies, Hungary concluded that a "state of ecological necessitv"&lt;br /&gt;did indeed exist in 1989.&lt;br /&gt;41. In its written pleadings, Hungary also accused Czechoslovakia of&lt;br /&gt;having violated various provisions of the 1977 Treaty from before 1989&lt;br /&gt;- in particular Articles 15 and 19 relating, respectively, to water quality&lt;br /&gt;and nature protection - in refusing to take account of the now evident&lt;br /&gt;ecological dangers and insisting that the works be continued, notably at&lt;br /&gt;Nagymaros. In this context Hungary contended that, in accordance with&lt;br /&gt;the terms of Article 3, paragraph 2, of the Agreement of 6 May 1976 concerning&lt;br /&gt;the Joint Contractual Plan, Czechoslovakia bore responsibility&lt;br /&gt;for research into the Project's impact on the environment; Hungary&lt;br /&gt;stressed that the research carried out by Czechoslovakia had not been&lt;br /&gt;conducted adequately, the potential effects of the Project on the environment&lt;br /&gt;of the construction having been assessed by Czechoslovakia only&lt;br /&gt;from September 1990. However, in the final stage of its argument, Hungary&lt;br /&gt;does not appear to have sought to formulate this complaint as an&lt;br /&gt;independent ground formally justifying the suspension and abandonment&lt;br /&gt;of the works for which it was responsible under the 1977 Treaty. Rather,&lt;br /&gt;it presented the violations of the Treaty prior to 1989, which it imputes to&lt;br /&gt;Czechoslovakia, as one of the elements contributing to the emergence of&lt;br /&gt;a state of necessity.&lt;br /&gt;42. Hungary moreover contended from the outset that its conduct in&lt;br /&gt;the present case should not be evaluated only in relation to the law of&lt;br /&gt;treaties. It also observed that, in accordance with the provisions of&lt;br /&gt;Article 4, the Vienna Convention of 23 May 1969 on the Law of Treaties&lt;br /&gt;could not be applied to the 1977 Treaty, which was concluded before that&lt;br /&gt;Convention entered into force as between the parties. Hungary has&lt;br /&gt;indeed acknowledged, with reference to the jurisprudence of the Court,&lt;br /&gt;that in many respects the Convention reflects the existing customary law.&lt;br /&gt;Hungary nonetheless stressed the need to adopt a cautious attitude, while&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;suggesting that the Court should consider, in each case, the conformity of&lt;br /&gt;the prescriptions of the Convention with customary international law.&lt;br /&gt;43. Slovakia, for its part, denied that the basis for suspending or abandoning&lt;br /&gt;the performance of a treaty obligation can be found outside the&lt;br /&gt;law of treaties. It acknowledged that the 1969 Vienna Convention could&lt;br /&gt;not be applied as such to the 1977 Treaty, but at the same time stressed&lt;br /&gt;that a number of its provisions are a reflection of pre-existing rules of&lt;br /&gt;customary international law and specified that this is, in particular, the&lt;br /&gt;case with the provisions of Part V relating to invalidity, termination and&lt;br /&gt;suspension of the operation of treaties. Slovakia has moreover observed&lt;br /&gt;that, after the Vienna Convention had entered into force for both parties,&lt;br /&gt;Hungary affirmed its accession to the substantive obligations laid down&lt;br /&gt;by the 1977 Treaty when it signed the Protocol of 6 February 1989 that&lt;br /&gt;cut short the schedule of work: and this led it to conclude that the Vienna&lt;br /&gt;Convention was applicable to'the "contractual legal régime" constituted&lt;br /&gt;by the network of interrelated agreements of which the Protocol of 1989&lt;br /&gt;was a part.&lt;br /&gt;44. In the course of the proceedings, Slovakia argued at length that the&lt;br /&gt;state of necessity upon which Hungary relied did not constitute a reason&lt;br /&gt;for the suspension of a treaty obligation recognized by the law of treaties.&lt;br /&gt;At the same time, it cast doubt upon whether "ecological necessity" or&lt;br /&gt;"ecological risk" could, in relation to the law of State responsibility, constitute&lt;br /&gt;a circumstance precluding the wrongfulness of an act.&lt;br /&gt;In any event, Slovakia denied that there had been any kind of "ecological&lt;br /&gt;state of necessity" in this case either in 1989 or subsequently. It&lt;br /&gt;invoked the authority of various scientific studies when it claimed that&lt;br /&gt;Hungary had given an exaggeratedly pessimistic description of the situation.&lt;br /&gt;Slovakia did not, of course, deny that ecological problems could&lt;br /&gt;have arisen. However, it asserted that they could to a large extent have&lt;br /&gt;been remedied. It accordingly stressed that no agreement had been&lt;br /&gt;reached with respect to the modalities of operation of the GabCikovo&lt;br /&gt;power plant in peak mode, and claimed that the apprehensions of Hungary&lt;br /&gt;related only to operating conditions of an extreme kind. In the same&lt;br /&gt;way, it contended that the original Project had undergone various modifications&lt;br /&gt;since 1977 and that it would have been possible to modify it&lt;br /&gt;even further, for example with respect to the discharge of water reserved&lt;br /&gt;for the old bed of the Danube, or the supply of water to the side-arms by&lt;br /&gt;means of underwater weirs.&lt;br /&gt;45. Slovakia moreover denied that it in any way breached the 1977&lt;br /&gt;Treaty - particularly its Articles 15 and 19 - and maintained, inter dia,&lt;br /&gt;that according to the terms of Article 3, paragraph 2, of the Agreement&lt;br /&gt;of 6 May 1976 relating to the Joint Contractual Plan, research into the&lt;br /&gt;impact of the Project on the environment was not the exclusive responsibility&lt;br /&gt;of Czechoslovakia but of either one of the parties, depending on&lt;br /&gt;the location of the works.&lt;br /&gt;Lastly, in its turn, it reproached Hungary with having adopted its unilateral&lt;br /&gt;measures of suspension and abandonment of the works in violation of the provisions of Article 27 of the 1977 Treaty (see paragraph 18&lt;br /&gt;above), which it submits required prior recourse to the machinery for dispute&lt;br /&gt;settlement provided for in that Article.&lt;br /&gt;46. The Court has no need to dwell upon the question of the applicability&lt;br /&gt;in the present case of the Vienna Convention of 1969 on the Law of&lt;br /&gt;Treaties. It needs only to be mindful of the fact that it has several times&lt;br /&gt;had occasion to hold that some of the rules laid down in that Convention&lt;br /&gt;might be considered as a codification of existing customary law. The&lt;br /&gt;Court takes the view that in many respects this applies to the provisions&lt;br /&gt;of the Vienna Convention concerning the termination and the suspension&lt;br /&gt;of the operation of treaties, set forth in Articles 60 to 62 (see Legal Conseyuences&lt;br /&gt;for States ofthe Continued Presence of South Afiicu in Namibia&lt;br /&gt;(South West Ajrica) not1vithstunding Security Council Resolution 276&lt;br /&gt;(1970), Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports. 1971, p. 47, and Fisheries&lt;br /&gt;Jurisdiction (United Kingdom v. Iceland), Jurisdiction of the Court,&lt;br /&gt;Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1973, p. 18; see also Interpretation qf the&lt;br /&gt;Agreement of 25 Murch 1951 hetitjeen the WHO and Egypt, Advisory&lt;br /&gt;Opinion, 1. C. J. Reports 1980, pp. 95-96).&lt;br /&gt;Neither has the Court lost sight of the fact that the Vienna Convention&lt;br /&gt;is in any event applicable to the Protocol of 6 February 1989 whereby&lt;br /&gt;Hungary and Czechoslovakia agreed to accelerate completion of the&lt;br /&gt;works relating to the GabEikovo-Nagymaros Project.&lt;br /&gt;47. Nor does the Court need to dwell upon the question of the relationship&lt;br /&gt;between the law of treaties and the law of State responsibility, to&lt;br /&gt;which the Parties devoted lengthy arguments, as those two branches of&lt;br /&gt;international law obviously have a scope that is distinct. A determination&lt;br /&gt;of whether a convention is or is not in force, and whether it has or has&lt;br /&gt;not been properly suspended or denounced, is to be made pursuant to the&lt;br /&gt;law of treaties. On the other hand, an evaluation of the extent to which&lt;br /&gt;the suspension or denunciation of a convention, seen as incompatible&lt;br /&gt;with the law of treaties, involves the responsibility of the State which proceeded&lt;br /&gt;to it, is to be made under the law of state responsibility.&lt;br /&gt;Thus the Vienna Convention of 1969 on the Law of Treaties confines&lt;br /&gt;itself to defining - in a limitative manner - the conditions in which a&lt;br /&gt;treaty may lawfully be denounced or suspended; while the effects of a&lt;br /&gt;denunciation or suspension seen as not meeting those conditions are, on&lt;br /&gt;the contrary, expressly excluded from the scope of the Convention by&lt;br /&gt;operation of Article 73. It is moreover well established that, when a State&lt;br /&gt;has committed an internationally wrongful act, its international responsibility&lt;br /&gt;is likely to be involved whatever the nature of the obligation it&lt;br /&gt;has failed to respect (cf. Interpretation of Peuce Treaties ivith Bulgaria,&lt;br /&gt;Hungarp and Romania, Second Phase, Advisory Opinion, 1. C. J. Reports&lt;br /&gt;1950, p. 228; and see Article 17 of the Draft Articles on State Responsibility provisionally adopted by the International Law Commission on&lt;br /&gt;first reading, Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1980,&lt;br /&gt;Vol. I I , Part 2, p. 32).&lt;br /&gt;48. The Court cannot accept Hungary's argument to the effect that, in&lt;br /&gt;1989, in suspending and subsequently abandoning the works for which it&lt;br /&gt;was still responsible at Nagymaros and at Dunakiliti, it did not, for al1&lt;br /&gt;that, suspend the application of the 1977 Treaty itself or then reject that&lt;br /&gt;Treaty. The conduct of Hungary at that time can only be interpreted as&lt;br /&gt;an expression of its unwillingness to comply with at least some of the provisions&lt;br /&gt;of the Treaty and the Protocol of 6 February 1989, as specified in&lt;br /&gt;the Joint Contractual Plan. The effect of Hungary's conduct was to&lt;br /&gt;render impossible the accomplishment of the system of works that the&lt;br /&gt;Treaty expressly described as "single and indivisible".&lt;br /&gt;The Court moreover observes that, when it invoked the state of necessity&lt;br /&gt;in an effort to justify that conduct, Hungary chose to place itself&lt;br /&gt;from the outset within the ambit of the law of State responsibility,&lt;br /&gt;thereby implying that, in the absence of such a circumstance, its conduct&lt;br /&gt;would have been unlawful. The state of necessity claimed by Hungary -&lt;br /&gt;supposing it to have been established - thus could not permit of the conclusion&lt;br /&gt;that, in 1989, it had acted in accordance with its obligations&lt;br /&gt;under the 1977 Treaty or that those obligations had ceased to be binding&lt;br /&gt;upon it. It would only permit the affirmation that, under the circumstances,&lt;br /&gt;Hungary would not incur international responsibility by acting&lt;br /&gt;as it did. Lastly, the Court points out that Hungary expressly acknowledged&lt;br /&gt;that, in any event, such a state of necessity would not exempt it&lt;br /&gt;from its duty to compensate its partner.&lt;br /&gt;49. The Court will now consider the question of whether there was, in&lt;br /&gt;1989, a state of necessity which would have permitted Hungary, without&lt;br /&gt;incurring international responsibility, to suspend and abandon works&lt;br /&gt;that it was committed to perform in accordance with the 1977 Treaty and&lt;br /&gt;related instruments.&lt;br /&gt;50. In the present case, the Parties are in agreement in considering that&lt;br /&gt;the existence of a state of necessity must be evaluated in the light of the&lt;br /&gt;criteria laid down by the International Law Commission in Article 33 of&lt;br /&gt;the Draft Articles on the International Responsibility of States that it&lt;br /&gt;adopted on first reading. That provision is worded as follows:&lt;br /&gt;"Article 33. Stufe of' Necrssify&lt;br /&gt;1. A state of necessity may not be invoked by a State as a ground&lt;br /&gt;for precluding the wrongfulness of an act of that State not in conformity&lt;br /&gt;with an international obligation of the State unless:&lt;br /&gt;(a) the act was the only means of safeguarding an essential interest&lt;br /&gt;of the State against a grave and imminent peril; and&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(6) the act did not seriously impair an essential interest of the State&lt;br /&gt;towards which the obligation existed.&lt;br /&gt;2. In any case, a state of necessity may not be invoked by a State&lt;br /&gt;as a ground for precluding wrongfulness:&lt;br /&gt;(a) if the international obligation with which the act of the State is&lt;br /&gt;not in conformity arises out of a peremptory norm of general&lt;br /&gt;international law; or&lt;br /&gt;(b) if the international obligation with which the act of the State is&lt;br /&gt;not in conformity is laid down by a treaty which, explicitly or&lt;br /&gt;implicitly, excludes the possibility of invoking the state of necessity&lt;br /&gt;with respect to that obligation; or&lt;br /&gt;(c) if the State in question has contributed to the occurrence of the&lt;br /&gt;state of necessity." (Yearbook of the International Laiv Commission,&lt;br /&gt;1980, Vol. II, Part 2, p. 34.)&lt;br /&gt;In its Commentary, the Commission defined the "state of necessity" as&lt;br /&gt;being&lt;br /&gt;"the situation of a State whose sole means of safeguarding an essential&lt;br /&gt;interest threatened by a grave and imminent peril is to adopt&lt;br /&gt;conduct not in conformity with what is required of it by an international&lt;br /&gt;obligation to another State" (ibid., para. 1).&lt;br /&gt;It concluded that "the notion of state of necessity is . . . deeply rooted in&lt;br /&gt;general legal thinking" (ibid, p. 49, para. 31).&lt;br /&gt;51. The Court considers, first of all, that the state of necessity is a&lt;br /&gt;ground recognized by customary international law for precluding the&lt;br /&gt;wrongfulness of an act not in conformity with an international obligation.&lt;br /&gt;It observes moreover that such ground for precluding wrongfulness&lt;br /&gt;can only be accepted on an exceptional basis. The International Law&lt;br /&gt;Commission was of the same opinion when it explained that it had opted&lt;br /&gt;for a negative form of words in Article 33 of its Draft&lt;br /&gt;"in order to show, by this formal means also, that the case of invocation&lt;br /&gt;of a state of necessity as a justification must be considered as&lt;br /&gt;really constituting an exception - and one even more rarely admissible&lt;br /&gt;than is the case with the other circumstances precluding wrongfulness&lt;br /&gt;. . ." (ibid, p. 51, para. 40).&lt;br /&gt;Thus, according to the Commission, the state of necessity can only be&lt;br /&gt;invoked under certain strictly defined conditions which must be cumulatively&lt;br /&gt;satisfied; and the State concerned is not the sole judge of whether&lt;br /&gt;those conditions have been met.&lt;br /&gt;52. In the present case, the following basic conditions set forth in&lt;br /&gt;Draft Article 33 are relevant: it must have been occasioned by an "essential&lt;br /&gt;interest" of the State which is the author of the act conficting with&lt;br /&gt;one of its international obligations; that interest must have been threatened&lt;br /&gt;by a "grave and imminent peril"; the act being challenged must&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;have been the "only means" of safeguarding that interest; that act must&lt;br /&gt;not have "seriously impair[ed] an essential interest" of the State towards&lt;br /&gt;which the obligation existed; and the State which is the author of that act&lt;br /&gt;must not have "contributed to the occurrence of the state of necessity".&lt;br /&gt;Those conditions reflect customary international law.&lt;br /&gt;The Court will now endeavour to ascertain whether those conditions&lt;br /&gt;had been met at the time of the suspension and abandonment, by Hungary,&lt;br /&gt;of the works that it was to carry out in accordance with the 1977&lt;br /&gt;Treaty.&lt;br /&gt;53. The Court has no difficulty in acknowledging that the concerns&lt;br /&gt;expressed by Hungary for its natural environment in the region affected&lt;br /&gt;by the Gabtikovo-Nagymaros Project related to an "essential interest" of&lt;br /&gt;that State, within the meaning given to that expression in Article 33 of&lt;br /&gt;the Draft of the International Law Commission.&lt;br /&gt;The Commission, in its Commentary, indicated that one should not, in&lt;br /&gt;that context, reduce an "essential interest" to a matter only of the "existence"&lt;br /&gt;of the State, and that the whole question was, ultimately, to be&lt;br /&gt;judged in the light of the particular case (see Yeurbook of the Internutionul&lt;br /&gt;Luiv Commission, 1980, Vol. I I , Part 2, p. 49, para. 32); at the&lt;br /&gt;same time, it included among the situations that could occasion a state of&lt;br /&gt;necessity, "a grave danger to . . . the ecological preservation of al1 or&lt;br /&gt;some of [the] territory [of a State]" (ibid, p. 35, para. 3); and specified,&lt;br /&gt;with reference to State practice, that "It is primarily in the last two&lt;br /&gt;decades that safeguarding the ecological balance has come to be considered&lt;br /&gt;an 'essential interest' of al1 States." (Ibid., p. 39, para. 14.)&lt;br /&gt;The Court recalls that it has recently had occasion to stress, in the following&lt;br /&gt;terms, the great significance that it attaches to respect for the environment,&lt;br /&gt;not only for States but also for the whole of mankind:&lt;br /&gt;"the environment is not an abstraction but represents the living&lt;br /&gt;space, the quality of life and the very health of human beings,&lt;br /&gt;including generations unborn. The existence of the general obligation&lt;br /&gt;of States to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction and&lt;br /&gt;control respect the environment of other States or of areas beyond&lt;br /&gt;national control is now part of the corpus of international law relating&lt;br /&gt;to the environment." (Legality of the Threut or Use of Nuclear&lt;br /&gt;Weapons, Advisoty Opinion, I. C. J. Reports 1996, pp. 241 -242,&lt;br /&gt;para. 29.)&lt;br /&gt;54. The verification of the existence, in 1989, of the "peril" invoked by&lt;br /&gt;Hungary, of its "grave and imminent" nature, as well as of the absence of&lt;br /&gt;any "means" to respond to it, other than the measures taken by Hungary&lt;br /&gt;to suspend and abandon the works, are al1 complex processes.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;As the Court has already indicated (see paragraphs 33 et seq.),&lt;br /&gt;Hungary on several occasions expressed, in 1989, its "uncertainties" as to&lt;br /&gt;the ecological impact of putting in place the GabCikovo-Nagymaros barrage&lt;br /&gt;system, which is why it asked insistently for new scientific studies to&lt;br /&gt;be carried out.&lt;br /&gt;The Court considers, however, that, serious though these uncertainties&lt;br /&gt;might have been they could not, alone, establish the objective existence of&lt;br /&gt;a "peril" in the sense of a component element of a state of necessity. The&lt;br /&gt;word "Deril" certainlv evokes the idea of "risk": that is vreciselv what&lt;br /&gt;distinguishes "peril" from material damage. But a state of necessity could&lt;br /&gt;not exist without a "Deril" dulv established at the relevant oint in time:&lt;br /&gt;the mere apprehensi'on of a Possible "peril" could not Affice in that&lt;br /&gt;remect. It could moreover hardlv be otherwise. when the "~eril" constituting&lt;br /&gt;the state of necessity has at the same time to be "grave" and&lt;br /&gt;"imminent". "Imminence" is synonymous with "immediacy" or "proximity"&lt;br /&gt;and goes far beyond the concept of "possibility". As the International&lt;br /&gt;Law Commission em~hasizedi n its commentarv,., the "extremelv&lt;br /&gt;grave and imminent" peril must "have been a threat to the interest at&lt;br /&gt;the actual time" (Yearbook of the International Laiv Commission, 1980,&lt;br /&gt;Vol. I I , Part 2, p. 49, para. 33). That does not exclude, in the view of the&lt;br /&gt;Court, that a "peril" appearing in the long term might be held to be&lt;br /&gt;"imminent" as soon as it is established, at the relevant point in time, that&lt;br /&gt;the realization of that peril, however far off it might be, is not thereby&lt;br /&gt;any less certain and inevitable.&lt;br /&gt;The Hungarian argument on the state of necessity could not convince&lt;br /&gt;the Court unless it was at least proven that a real, "grave" and "imminent"&lt;br /&gt;"peril" existed in 1989 and that the measures taken by Hungary&lt;br /&gt;were the only possible response to it.&lt;br /&gt;Both Parties have placed on record an impressive amount of scientific&lt;br /&gt;material aimed at reinforcing their respective arguments. The Court has&lt;br /&gt;given most careful attention to this material, in which the Parties have&lt;br /&gt;developed their opposing views as to the ecological consequences of the&lt;br /&gt;Project. It concludes, however, that, as will be shown below, it is not&lt;br /&gt;necessary in order to respond to the questions put to it in the Special&lt;br /&gt;Agreement for it to determine which of those points of view is scientifically&lt;br /&gt;better founded.&lt;br /&gt;55. The Court will begin by considering the situation at Nagymaros.&lt;br /&gt;As has already been mentioned (see paragraph 40), Hungary maintained&lt;br /&gt;that, if the works at Nagymaros had been carried out as planned, the&lt;br /&gt;environment - and in particular the drinking water resources - in the&lt;br /&gt;area would have been exposed to serious dangers on account of problems&lt;br /&gt;linked to the upstream reservoir on the one hand and, on the other, the&lt;br /&gt;risks of erosion of the riverbed downstream.&lt;br /&gt;The Court notes that the dangers ascribed to the upstream reservoir&lt;br /&gt;were mostly of a long-term nature and, above all, that they remained uncertain.&lt;br /&gt;Even though the Joint Contractual Plan envisaged that the GabEikovo power plant would "mainly operate in peak-load time and continuously&lt;br /&gt;during high water", the final rules of operation had not yet&lt;br /&gt;been determined (see paragraph 19 above); however, any dangers associated&lt;br /&gt;with the putting into service of the Nagymaros portion of the&lt;br /&gt;Project would have been closely linked to the extent to which it was operated&lt;br /&gt;in peak mode and to the modalities of such operation. It follows&lt;br /&gt;that, even if it could have been established - which, in the Court's&lt;br /&gt;appreciation of the evidence before it, was not the case - that the reservoir&lt;br /&gt;would ultimately have constituted a "grave peril" for the environment&lt;br /&gt;in the area, one would be bound to conclude that the peril was not&lt;br /&gt;"imminent" at the time at which Hungary suspended and then abandoned&lt;br /&gt;the works relating to the dam.&lt;br /&gt;With regard to the lowering of the riverbed downstream of the Nagymaros&lt;br /&gt;dam, the danger could have appeared at once more serious and&lt;br /&gt;more pressing, in so far as it was the supply of drinking water to the city&lt;br /&gt;of Budapest which would have been affected. The Court would however&lt;br /&gt;point out that the bed of the Danube in the vicinity of Szentendre had&lt;br /&gt;already been deepened prior to 1980 in order to extract building materials,&lt;br /&gt;and that the river had from that time attained, in that sector, the&lt;br /&gt;depth required by the 1977 Treaty. The peril invoked by Hungary had&lt;br /&gt;thus already materialized to a large extent for a number of years, so that&lt;br /&gt;it could not, in 1989, represent a peril arising entirely out of the project.&lt;br /&gt;The Court would stress, however, that, even supposing, as Hungary&lt;br /&gt;maintained, that the construction and operation of the dam would have&lt;br /&gt;created serious risks, Hungary had means available to it, other than the&lt;br /&gt;suspension and abandonment of the works, of responding to that situation.&lt;br /&gt;It could for example have proceeded regularly to discharge grave1&lt;br /&gt;into the river downstream of the dam. It could likewise, if necessary, have&lt;br /&gt;supplied Budapest with drinking water by processing the river water in&lt;br /&gt;an appropriate manner. The two Parties expressly recognized that that&lt;br /&gt;possibility remained open even though - and this is not determinative of&lt;br /&gt;the state of necessity - the purification of the river water, like the other&lt;br /&gt;measures envisaged, clearly would have been a more costly technique.&lt;br /&gt;56. The Court now comes to the GabEikovo sector. It will recall that&lt;br /&gt;Hungary's concerns in this sector related on the one hand to the quality&lt;br /&gt;of the surface water in the Dunakiliti reservoir, with its effects on the&lt;br /&gt;quality of the groundwater in the region, and on the other hand, more&lt;br /&gt;generally, to the level, movement and quality of both the surface water&lt;br /&gt;and the groundwater in the whole of the Szigetkoz, with their effects on&lt;br /&gt;the Sauna and flora in the alluvial plain of the Danube (see paragraph 40&lt;br /&gt;above).&lt;br /&gt;Whether in relation to the Dunakiliti site or to the whole of the&lt;br /&gt;Szigetkoz, the Court finds here again, that the peril claimed by Hungary&lt;br /&gt;was to be considered in the long term, and, more importantly, remained&lt;br /&gt;uncertain. As Hungary itself acknowledges, the damage that it apprehended had primarily to be the result of some relatively slow natural&lt;br /&gt;processes, the effects of which could not easily be assessed.&lt;br /&gt;Even if the works were more advanced in this sector than at Nagymaros,&lt;br /&gt;they had not been completed in July 1989 and, as the Court&lt;br /&gt;explained in paragraph 34 above, Hungary expressly undertook to carry&lt;br /&gt;on with them, early in June 1989. The report dated 23 June 1989 by the&lt;br /&gt;ud hoc Committee of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, which was&lt;br /&gt;also referred to in paragraph 35 of the present Judgment, does not&lt;br /&gt;express any awareness of an authenticated peril - even in the form of a&lt;br /&gt;definite peril, whose realization would have been inevitable in the long&lt;br /&gt;term - when it States that:&lt;br /&gt;"The measuring results of an at least five-year monitoring period&lt;br /&gt;following the completion of the Gabtikovo construction are indispensable&lt;br /&gt;to the trustworthy prognosis of the ecological impacts of&lt;br /&gt;the barrage system. There is undoubtedly a need for the establishment&lt;br /&gt;and regular operation of a comprehensive monitoring system,&lt;br /&gt;which must be more developed than at present. The examination of&lt;br /&gt;biological indicator objects that can sensitively indicate the changes&lt;br /&gt;happening in the environment, neglected till today, have to be&lt;br /&gt;included."&lt;br /&gt;The report concludes as follows:&lt;br /&gt;"It can be stated, that the environmental, ecological and water&lt;br /&gt;quality impacts were not taken into account properly during the&lt;br /&gt;design and construction period until today. Because of the complexity&lt;br /&gt;of the ecological processes and lack of the measured data and the&lt;br /&gt;relevant calculations the environmental impacts cannot be evaluated.&lt;br /&gt;The data of the monitoring system newly operating on a very limited&lt;br /&gt;area are not enough to forecast the impacts probably occurring&lt;br /&gt;over a longer term. In order to widen and to make the data more&lt;br /&gt;frequent a further multi-year examination is necessary to decrease&lt;br /&gt;the further degradation of the water quality playing a dominant role&lt;br /&gt;in this question. The expected water quality influences equally the&lt;br /&gt;aquatic ecosystems, the soils and the recreational and tourist&lt;br /&gt;land-use."&lt;br /&gt;The Court also notes that, in these proceedings, Hungary acknowledged&lt;br /&gt;that, as a general rule, the quality of the Danube waters had improved&lt;br /&gt;over the past 20 years, even if those waters remained subject to hypertrophic&lt;br /&gt;conditions.&lt;br /&gt;However "grave" it might have been, it would accordingly have been&lt;br /&gt;difficult, in the light of what is said above, to see the alleged peril as sufficiently&lt;br /&gt;certain and therefore "imminent" in 1989.&lt;br /&gt;The Court moreover considers that Hungary could, in this context&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;also, have resorted to other means in order to respond to the dangers that&lt;br /&gt;it apprehended. In particular, within the framework of the original&lt;br /&gt;Project, Hungary seemed to be in a position to control at least partially&lt;br /&gt;the distribution of the water between the bypass canal, the old bed of the&lt;br /&gt;Danube and the side-arms. It should not be overlooked that the Dunakiliti&lt;br /&gt;dam was located in Hungarian territory and that Hungary could construct&lt;br /&gt;the works needed to regulate flows along the old bed of the Danube&lt;br /&gt;and the side-arms. Moreover, it should be borne in mind that&lt;br /&gt;Article 14 of the 1977 Treaty provided for the possibility that each of the&lt;br /&gt;parties might withdraw quantities of water exceeding those specified in&lt;br /&gt;the Joint Contractual Plan, while making it clear that, in such an event,&lt;br /&gt;"the share of electric power of the Contracting Party benefiting from the&lt;br /&gt;excess withdrawal shall be correspondingly reduced".&lt;br /&gt;57. The Court concludes from the foregoing that, with respect to both&lt;br /&gt;Nagymaros and GabCikovo, the perils invoked by Hungary, without prejudging&lt;br /&gt;their possible gravity, were not sufficiently established in 1989,&lt;br /&gt;nor were they "imminent"; and that Hungary had available to it at that&lt;br /&gt;time means of responding to these perceived perils other than the suspension&lt;br /&gt;and abandonment of works with which it had been entrusted. What&lt;br /&gt;is more, negotiations were under way which might have led to a review of&lt;br /&gt;the Project and the extension of some of its time-limits, without there&lt;br /&gt;being need to abandon it. The Court infers from this that the respect by&lt;br /&gt;Hungary, in 1989, of its obligations under the terms of the 1977 Treaty&lt;br /&gt;would not have resulted in a situation "characterized so aptly by the&lt;br /&gt;maxim summum jus summa injuria" ( Yearbook of the International Law&lt;br /&gt;Commission, 1980, Vol. II, Part 2, p. 49, para. 31).&lt;br /&gt;Moreover, the Court notes that Hungary decided to conclude the 1977&lt;br /&gt;Treaty, a Treaty which - whatever the political circumstances prevailing&lt;br /&gt;at the time of its conclusion - was treated by Hungary as valid and in&lt;br /&gt;force until the date declared for its termination in May 1992. As can be&lt;br /&gt;seen from the material before the Court, a great many studies of a scientific&lt;br /&gt;and technical nature had been conducted at an earlier time, both by&lt;br /&gt;Hungary and by Czechoslovakia. Hungary was, then, presumably aware&lt;br /&gt;of the situation as then known, when it assumed its obligations under the&lt;br /&gt;Treaty. Hungary contended before the Court that those studies had been&lt;br /&gt;inadequate and that the state of knowledge at that time was not such as&lt;br /&gt;to make possible a complete evaluation of the ecological implications of&lt;br /&gt;the GabCikovo-Nagymaros Project. It is nonetheless the case that&lt;br /&gt;although the principal object of the 1977 Treaty was the construction of&lt;br /&gt;a System of Locks for the production of electricity, improvement of navigation&lt;br /&gt;on the Danube and protection against flooding, the need to ensure&lt;br /&gt;the protection of the environment had not escaped the parties, as can be&lt;br /&gt;seen from Articles 15, 19 and 20 of the Treaty.&lt;br /&gt;What is more, the Court cannot fail to note the positions taken by&lt;br /&gt;Hungary after the entry into force of the 1977 Treaty. In 1983, Hungary&lt;br /&gt;asked that the works under the Treaty should go forward more slowly,&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;for reasons that were essentially economic but also, subsidiarily, related&lt;br /&gt;to ecological concerns. In 1989, when, according to Hungary itself, the&lt;br /&gt;state of scientific knowledge had undergone a significant development, it&lt;br /&gt;asked for the works to be speeded up, and then decided, three months&lt;br /&gt;later, to suspend them and subsequently to abandon them. The Court is&lt;br /&gt;not however unaware that profound changes were taking place in Hungary&lt;br /&gt;in 1989, and that, during that transitory phase, it might have been&lt;br /&gt;more than usually difficult to co-ordinate the different points of view prevailing&lt;br /&gt;from time to time.&lt;br /&gt;The Court infers from al1 these elements that, in the present case, even&lt;br /&gt;if it had been established that there was. in 1989, a state of necessity&lt;br /&gt;linked to the performance of the 1977 Treaty, Hungary would not have&lt;br /&gt;been permitted to rely upon that state of necessity in order to justify its&lt;br /&gt;failure to comply with its treaty obligations, as it had helped, by act or&lt;br /&gt;omission to bring it about.&lt;br /&gt;58. It follows that the Court has no need to consider whether Hungary,&lt;br /&gt;by proceeding as it did in 1989, "seriously impair[ed] an essential&lt;br /&gt;interest" of Czechoslovakia, within the meaning of the aforementioned&lt;br /&gt;Article 33 of the Draft of the International Law Commission - a finding&lt;br /&gt;which does not in any way prejudge the damage Czechoslovakia claims&lt;br /&gt;to have suffered on account of the position taken by Hungary.&lt;br /&gt;Nor does the Court need to examine the argument put forward by&lt;br /&gt;Hungary, according to which certain breaches of Articles 15 and 19 of&lt;br /&gt;the 1977 Treaty, committed by Czechoslovakia even before 1989, contributed&lt;br /&gt;to the purported state of necessity; and neither does it have to&lt;br /&gt;reach a decision on the argument advanced by Slovakia, according to&lt;br /&gt;which Hungary breached the provisions of Article 27 of the Treaty,&lt;br /&gt;in 1989, by taking unilateral measures without having previously&lt;br /&gt;had recourse to the machinery of dispute settlement for which that&lt;br /&gt;Article provides.&lt;br /&gt;59. In the light of the conclusions reached above, the Court, in reply to&lt;br /&gt;the question put to it in Article 2, paragraph 1 ( a ) , of the Special Agreement&lt;br /&gt;(see paragraph 27 above), finds that Hungary was not entitled to&lt;br /&gt;suspend and subsequently abandon, in 1989, the works on the Nagymaros&lt;br /&gt;Project and on the part of the GabEikovo Project for which the&lt;br /&gt;1977 Treaty and related instruments attributed responsibility to it.&lt;br /&gt;60. By the terms of Article 2, paragraph 1 ( h ) , of the Special Agreement,&lt;br /&gt;the Court is asked in the second place to decide&lt;br /&gt;"(6) whether the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic was entitled&lt;br /&gt;to proceed, in November 1991, to the 'provisional solution'&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;and to put into operation from October 1992 this system,&lt;br /&gt;described in the Report of the Working Group of Independent&lt;br /&gt;Experts of the Commission of the European Communities, the&lt;br /&gt;Republic of Hungary and the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic&lt;br /&gt;dated 23 November 1992 (damming up of the Danube at&lt;br /&gt;river kilometre 185 1.7 on Czechoslovak territory and resulting&lt;br /&gt;consequences on water and navigation course)".&lt;br /&gt;61. The Court will recall that, as soon as Hungary suspended the&lt;br /&gt;works at Nagymaros on 13 May 1989 and extended that suspension to&lt;br /&gt;certain works to be carried out at Dunakiliti, Czechoslovakia informed&lt;br /&gt;Hungary that it would feel compelled to take unilateral measures if Hungary&lt;br /&gt;were to persist in its refusa1 to resume the works. This was inter alia&lt;br /&gt;expressed as follows in Czechoslovakia's Note Verbale of 30 October&lt;br /&gt;1989 to which reference is made in paragraph 37 above:&lt;br /&gt;"Should the Republic of Hungary fail to meet its liabilities and&lt;br /&gt;continue unilaterally to breach the Treaty and related legal documents&lt;br /&gt;then the Czechoslovak party will be forced to commence a&lt;br /&gt;provisional, substitute project on the territory of the Czechoslovak&lt;br /&gt;Socialist Republic in order to prevent further losses. Such a provisional&lt;br /&gt;project would entail directing as much water into the Gabtikovo&lt;br /&gt;dam as agreed in the Joint Construction Plan."&lt;br /&gt;As the Court has already indicated (see paragraph 23), various&lt;br /&gt;alternative solutions were contemplated by Czechoslovakia. In September&lt;br /&gt;1990, the Hungarian authorities were advised of seven hypothetical&lt;br /&gt;alternatives defined by the firm of Hydroconsult of Bratislava. All of&lt;br /&gt;those solutions implied an agreement between the parties, with the exception&lt;br /&gt;of one variant, subsequently known as "Variant C", which was presented&lt;br /&gt;as a provisional solution which could be brought about without&lt;br /&gt;Hungarian CO-operation. Other contacts between the parties took place,&lt;br /&gt;without leading to a settlement of the dispute. In March 1991, Hungary&lt;br /&gt;acquired information according to which perceptible progress had been&lt;br /&gt;made in finalizing the planning of Variant C; it immediately gave expression&lt;br /&gt;to the concern this caused.&lt;br /&gt;62. Inter-governmental negotiation meetings were held on 22 April&lt;br /&gt;and 15 July 1991.&lt;br /&gt;On 22 April 1991, Hungary proposed the suspension, until September&lt;br /&gt;1993, of al1 the works begun on the basis of the 1977 Treaty, on the&lt;br /&gt;understanding that the parties undertook to abstain from any unilateral&lt;br /&gt;action, and that joint studies would be carried out in the interval.&lt;br /&gt;Czechoslovakia maintained its previous position according to which the&lt;br /&gt;studies contemplated should take place within the framework of the 1977&lt;br /&gt;Treaty and without any suspension of the works.&lt;br /&gt;On 15 July 1991, Czechoslovakia confirmed its intention of putting the&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;GabEikovo power plant into service and indicated that the available data&lt;br /&gt;enabled the effects of four possible scenarios to be assessed, each of them&lt;br /&gt;requiring the co-operation of the two Governments. At the same time, it&lt;br /&gt;proposed the setting up of a tripartite committee of experts (Hungary,&lt;br /&gt;Czechoslovakia, European Communities) which would help in the search&lt;br /&gt;for technical solutions to the problems arising from the entry into operation&lt;br /&gt;of the GabCikovo sector. Hungary, for its part, took the view that :&lt;br /&gt;"In the case of a total lack of understanding the so-called C variation&lt;br /&gt;or 'theoretical opportunity' suggested by the Czecho-Slovak&lt;br /&gt;party as a unilateral solution would be such a grave transgression of&lt;br /&gt;Hungarian territorial integrity and International Law for which&lt;br /&gt;there is no precedent even in the practices of the formerly socialist&lt;br /&gt;countries for the past 30 years";&lt;br /&gt;it further proposed the setting up of a bilateral committee for the assessment&lt;br /&gt;of environmental consequences, subject to work on Czechoslovak&lt;br /&gt;territory being suspended.&lt;br /&gt;63. By a letter dated 24 July 1991, the Government of Hungary communicated&lt;br /&gt;the following message to the Prime Minister of Slovakia:&lt;br /&gt;"Hungarian public opinion and the Hungarian Government&lt;br /&gt;anxiously and attentively follows the [Czechoslovakian] press reports&lt;br /&gt;of the unilateral steps of the Government of the Slovak Republic&lt;br /&gt;in connection with the barrage system.&lt;br /&gt;The preparatory works for diverting the water of the Danube near&lt;br /&gt;the Dunakiliti dam through unilaterally are also alarming. These&lt;br /&gt;steps are contrary to the 1977 Treaty and to the good relationship&lt;br /&gt;between our nations."&lt;br /&gt;On 30 July 1991 the Slovak Prime Minister informed the Hungarian&lt;br /&gt;Prime Minister of&lt;br /&gt;"the decision of the Slovak Government and of the Czech and Slovak&lt;br /&gt;Federal Government to continue work on the GabEikovo power&lt;br /&gt;plant, as a provisional solution, which is aimed at the commencement&lt;br /&gt;of operations on the territory of the Czech and Slovak Federal&lt;br /&gt;Republic".&lt;br /&gt;On the same day, the Government of Hungary protested, by a Note Verbale,&lt;br /&gt;against the filling of the headrace canal by the Czechoslovak construction&lt;br /&gt;Company, by pumping water from the Danube.&lt;br /&gt;By a letter dated 9 August 1991 and addressed to the Prime Minister of&lt;br /&gt;Slovakia, the Hungarian authorities strenuously protested against "any&lt;br /&gt;unilateral step that would be in contradiction with the interests of our&lt;br /&gt;[two] nations and international law" and indicated that they considered it&lt;br /&gt;"very important [to] receive information as early as possible on the&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;details of the provisional solution". For its part, Czechoslovakia, in a&lt;br /&gt;Note Verbale dated 27 August 1991, rejected the argument of Hungary&lt;br /&gt;that the continuation of the works under those circumstances constituted&lt;br /&gt;a violation of international law, and made the following proposal:&lt;br /&gt;"Provided the Hungarian side submits a concrete technical solution&lt;br /&gt;aimed at putting into operation the Gabtikovo system of locks&lt;br /&gt;and a solution of the system of locks based on the 1977 Treaty in&lt;br /&gt;force and the treaty documents related to it, the Czechoslovak side is&lt;br /&gt;prepared to implement the mutually agreed solution."&lt;br /&gt;64. The construction permit for Variant C was issued Gn 30 October&lt;br /&gt;199 1. In November 1991 construction of a dam started at Cunovo, where&lt;br /&gt;both banks of the Danube are on Czechoslovak (now Slovak) territory.&lt;br /&gt;In the course of a new inter-governmental negotiation meeting, on&lt;br /&gt;2 December 1991, the parties agreed to entrust the task of studying the&lt;br /&gt;whole of the question of the Gabtikovo-Nagymaros Project to a Joint&lt;br /&gt;Expert Committee which Hungary agreed should be complemented with&lt;br /&gt;an expert from the European Communities. However whereas, for Hungary,&lt;br /&gt;the work of that Committee would have been meaningless if Czechoslovakia&lt;br /&gt;continued construction of Variant C, for Czechoslovakia, the&lt;br /&gt;suspension of the construction, even on a temporary basis, was unacceptable.&lt;br /&gt;That meeting was followed by a large number of exchanges of letters&lt;br /&gt;between the parties and various meetings between their representatives at&lt;br /&gt;the end of 1991 and earlv in 1992. On 23 Januarv 1992. Czechoslovakia&lt;br /&gt;expressed its readiness "to stop work on the provisional solution and&lt;br /&gt;continue the construction upon mutual agreement" if the tripartite committee&lt;br /&gt;of experts whose constitution it proposed, and the results of the&lt;br /&gt;test operation of the GabCikovo part, were to "confirm that negative ecological&lt;br /&gt;effects exceed its benefits". However, the positions of the parties&lt;br /&gt;were by then comprehensively defined, and would scarcely develop any&lt;br /&gt;further. Hungary considered, as it indicated in a Note Verbale of 14 February&lt;br /&gt;1992, that Variant C was in contravention&lt;br /&gt;"of [the Treaty of 19771 . . . and the convention ratified in 1976&lt;br /&gt;regarding the water management of boundary waters.&lt;br /&gt;. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .&lt;br /&gt;with the principles of sovereignty, territorial integrity, with the&lt;br /&gt;inviolability of State borders, as well as with the general customary&lt;br /&gt;norms on international rivers and the spirit of the 1948 Belgrade&lt;br /&gt;Danube Convention" ;&lt;br /&gt;and the suspension of the implementation of Variant C was, in its view, a&lt;br /&gt;prerequisite. As for Czechoslovakia, it took the view that recourse to&lt;br /&gt;Variant C had been rendered inevitable, both for economic and ecological as well as navigational reasons, because of the unlawful suspension&lt;br /&gt;and abandonment by Hungary of the works for which provision was&lt;br /&gt;made in the 1977 Treaty. Any negotiation had, in its view, to be conducted&lt;br /&gt;within the framework of the Treaty and without the implementation&lt;br /&gt;of Variant C - described as "provisional" - being called into&lt;br /&gt;question.&lt;br /&gt;65. On 5 August 1992, the Czechoslovak representative to the Danube&lt;br /&gt;Commission informed it that "work on the severance cutting through of&lt;br /&gt;the Danube's flow will begin on 15 October 1992 at the 1,851.759-kilometre&lt;br /&gt;line" and indicated the measures that would be taken at the time of&lt;br /&gt;the "severance". The Hungarian representative on the Commission protested&lt;br /&gt;on 17 August 1992, and called for additional explanations.&lt;br /&gt;During the autumn of 1992, the implementation of VariantvC was&lt;br /&gt;stepped up. The operations involved in damming the Danube at Cunovo&lt;br /&gt;had been scheduled by Czechoslovakia to take place during the second&lt;br /&gt;half of October 1992, at a time when the waters of the river are generally&lt;br /&gt;at their lowest level. On the initiative of the Commission of the European&lt;br /&gt;Communities, trilateral negotiations took place in Brussels on 21 and&lt;br /&gt;22 October 1992, with a view to setting up a committee of experts and&lt;br /&gt;defining its terms of reference. On that date, the first phase of the operations&lt;br /&gt;leading to the damming of the Danube (the reinforcement of the&lt;br /&gt;riverbed and the narrowing of the principal channel) had been completed.&lt;br /&gt;The closure of the bed was begun on 23 October 1992 and the&lt;br /&gt;construction of the actual dam continued from 24 to 27 October 1992:&lt;br /&gt;a pontoon bridge was built over the Danube on Czechoslovak territory&lt;br /&gt;using river barges, large Stones were thrown into the riverbed and&lt;br /&gt;reinforced with concrete, while 80 to 90 per cent of the waters of the&lt;br /&gt;Danube were directed into the canal designed to supply the Gabtikovo&lt;br /&gt;power plant. The implementation of Variant C did not, however, come&lt;br /&gt;to an end with the diversion of the waters, as there still remained outstanding&lt;br /&gt;both reinforcement work on the dam and the building of certain&lt;br /&gt;auxiliary structures.&lt;br /&gt;The Court has already referred in paragraph 24 to the meeting&lt;br /&gt;held in London on 28 October 1992 under the auspices of the European&lt;br /&gt;Communities, in the course of which the parties to the negotiations&lt;br /&gt;agreed, inter dia, to entrust a tripartite Working Group composed of&lt;br /&gt;independent experts (Le., four experts designated by the European Commission,&lt;br /&gt;one designated by Hungary and another by Czechoslovakia)&lt;br /&gt;with the task of reviewing the situation created by the implementation of&lt;br /&gt;Variant C and making proposals as to urgent measures to adopt. After&lt;br /&gt;having worked for one week in Bratislava and one week in Budapest, the&lt;br /&gt;Working Group filed its report on 23 November 1992.&lt;br /&gt;66. A summary description of the constituent elements of Variant C&lt;br /&gt;appears at paragraph 23 of the present Judgment. For the purposes of&lt;br /&gt;the question put to the Court, the officia1 description that should be&lt;br /&gt;adopted is, according to Article 2, paragraph 1 (b), of the Special Agreement,&lt;br /&gt;the one given in the aforementioned report of the Working Group of independent experts, and it should be emphasized that, according to&lt;br /&gt;the Special Agreement, "Variant C" must be taken to include the consequences&lt;br /&gt;"on water and navigation course" of the dam closing off the bed&lt;br /&gt;of the Danube.&lt;br /&gt;In the section headed "Variant C Structures and Status of Ongoing&lt;br /&gt;Work", one finds, in the report of the W.orking Group, the following&lt;br /&gt;passage :&lt;br /&gt;"In both countries the original structures for the GabEikovo&lt;br /&gt;scheme are completed except for the closure of the Danube river at&lt;br /&gt;Dunakiliti and the&lt;br /&gt;(1) Completion of the hydropower station (installation and testing&lt;br /&gt;of turbines) at GabEikovo.&lt;br /&gt;Variant C consists of a complex of structures, located in Czecho-&lt;br /&gt;Slovakia . . . The construction of these are planned for two phases.&lt;br /&gt;The structures include . . . :&lt;br /&gt;(2) By-pass weir controlling the flow into the river Danube.&lt;br /&gt;(3) Dam closing the Danubian river bed.&lt;br /&gt;(4) Floodplain weir (weir in the inundation).&lt;br /&gt;(5) lntake structure for the Mosoni Danube.&lt;br /&gt;(6) lntake structure in the power canal.&lt;br /&gt;(7) Earth barragesidykes connecting structures.&lt;br /&gt;(8) Ship lock for smaller ships (1 5 m x 80 m).&lt;br /&gt;(9) Spillway weir.&lt;br /&gt;(10) Hydropower station.&lt;br /&gt;The construction of the structures 1-7 are included in Phase 1,&lt;br /&gt;while the remaining 8-10 are a part of Phase 2 scheduled for construction&lt;br /&gt;1993-1995."&lt;br /&gt;67. Czechoslovakia had maintained that proceeding to Variant C and&lt;br /&gt;putting it into operation did not constitute internationally wrongful acts;&lt;br /&gt;Slovakia adopted this argument. During the proceedings before the Court&lt;br /&gt;Slovakia contended that Hungary's decision to suspend and subsequently&lt;br /&gt;abandon the construction of works at Dunakiliti had made it impossible&lt;br /&gt;for Czechoslovakia to carry out the works as initially contemplated by&lt;br /&gt;the 1977 Treaty and that the latter was therefore entitled to proceed with&lt;br /&gt;a solution which was as close to the original Project as possible. Slovakia&lt;br /&gt;invoked what it described as a "principle of approximate application" to&lt;br /&gt;justify the construction and operation of Variant C. It explained that this&lt;br /&gt;was the only possibility remaining to it "of fulfilling not only the purposes&lt;br /&gt;of the 1977 Treaty, but the continuing obligation to implement it in&lt;br /&gt;good faith".&lt;br /&gt;68. Slovakia also maintained that Czechoslovakia was under a duty to&lt;br /&gt;mitigate the damage resulting from Hungary's unlawful actions. It claimed&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;that a State which is confronted with a wrongful act of another State is&lt;br /&gt;under an obligation to minimize its losses and, thereby, the damages&lt;br /&gt;claimable against the wrongdoing State. It argued furthermore that "Mitigation&lt;br /&gt;of damages is also an aspect of the performance of obligations in&lt;br /&gt;good faith." For Slovakia, these damages would have been immense in&lt;br /&gt;the present case, given the investments made and the additional economic&lt;br /&gt;and environmental prejudice which would have resulted from the failure&lt;br /&gt;to complete the works at DunakilitiiGabEikovo and to put the system&lt;br /&gt;into operation. For this reason, Czechoslovakia was not only entitled,&lt;br /&gt;but even obliged, to implement Variant C.&lt;br /&gt;69. Although Slovakia maintained that Czechoslovakia's conduct was&lt;br /&gt;lawful, it argued in the alternative that, even were the Court to find&lt;br /&gt;otherwise, the putting into operation of Variant C could still be justified&lt;br /&gt;as a countermeasure.&lt;br /&gt;70. Hungary for its part contended that Variant C was a material&lt;br /&gt;breach of the 1977 Treaty. It considered that Variant C also violated&lt;br /&gt;Czechoslovakia's obligations under other treaties, in particular the Convention&lt;br /&gt;of 31 May 1976 on the Regulation of Water Management Issues&lt;br /&gt;of Boundary Waters concluded at Budapest, and its obligations under&lt;br /&gt;general international law.&lt;br /&gt;71. Hungary contended that Slovakia's arguments rested on an erroneous&lt;br /&gt;presentation of the facts and the law. Hungary denied, inter alia,&lt;br /&gt;having committed the slightest violation of its treaty obligations which&lt;br /&gt;could have justified the putting into operation of Variant C. It considered&lt;br /&gt;that "no such rule" of "approximate application" of a treaty exists in&lt;br /&gt;international law; as to the argument derived from "mitigation of damage[&lt;br /&gt;s]", it claimed that this has to do with the quantification of loss, and&lt;br /&gt;could not serve to excuse conduct which is substantively unlawful. Hungary&lt;br /&gt;furthermore stated that Variant C did not satisfy the conditions&lt;br /&gt;required by international law for countermeasures, in particular the condition&lt;br /&gt;of proportionality.&lt;br /&gt;72. Before dealing with the arguments advanced by the Parties, the&lt;br /&gt;Court wishes to make clear that it is aware of the serious problems with&lt;br /&gt;which Czechoslovakia was confronted as a result of Hungary's decision&lt;br /&gt;to relinquish most of the construction of the System of Locks for which&lt;br /&gt;it was responsible by virtue of the 1977 Treaty. Vast investments had&lt;br /&gt;been made, the construction at GabEikovo was al1 but finished, the&lt;br /&gt;bypass canal was completed, and Hungary itself, in 1991, had duly fulfilled&lt;br /&gt;its obligations under the Treaty in this respect in completing work&lt;br /&gt;on the tailrace canal. It emerges from the report, dated 31 October 1992,&lt;br /&gt;of the tripartite fact-finding mission the Court has referred to in paragraph&lt;br /&gt;24 of the present Judgment, that not using the system would haveled to considerable financial losses, and that it could have given rise to&lt;br /&gt;serious problems for the environment.&lt;br /&gt;73. Czechoslovakia repeatedly denounced Hungary's suspension and&lt;br /&gt;abandonment of works as a fundamental breach of the 1977 Treaty and&lt;br /&gt;consequently could have invoked this breach as a ground for terminating&lt;br /&gt;the Treaty; but this would not have brought the Project any nearer to&lt;br /&gt;completion. It therefore chose to insist on the implementation of the&lt;br /&gt;Treaty by Hungary, and on many occasions called upon the latter to&lt;br /&gt;resume performance of its obligations under the Treaty.&lt;br /&gt;When Hungary steadfastly refused to do so - although it had expressed&lt;br /&gt;its willingness to pay compensation for damage incurred by Czechoslovakia&lt;br /&gt;- and when negotiations stalled owing to the diametrically opposed&lt;br /&gt;positions of the parties, Czechoslovakia decided to put the GabEikovo&lt;br /&gt;system into operation unilaterally, exclusively under its own control and&lt;br /&gt;for its own benefit.&lt;br /&gt;74. That decision went through various stages and, in the Special&lt;br /&gt;Agreement, the Parties asked the Court to decide whether Czechoslovakia&lt;br /&gt;"was entitled to proceed, in November 1991" to Variant C,&lt;br /&gt;and "to put [it] into operation from October 1992".&lt;br /&gt;75. With a view to justifying those actions, Slovakia invoked what it&lt;br /&gt;described as "the principle of approximate application", expressed by&lt;br /&gt;Judge Sir Hersch Lauterpacht in the following terms:&lt;br /&gt;"lt is a sound principle of law that whenever a legal instrument of&lt;br /&gt;continuing validity cannot be applied literally owing to the conduct of&lt;br /&gt;one of the parties, it must, without allowing that party to take advantage&lt;br /&gt;of its own conduct, be applied in a way approximating most&lt;br /&gt;closely to its primary object. To do that is to interpret and to give&lt;br /&gt;effect to the instrument - not to change it." (Adrrzissibility uf Heurings&lt;br /&gt;of Petitioners by the Committee on Soutlz West Africu, I.C.J.&lt;br /&gt;Reports 1956, separate opinion of Sir Hersch Lauterpacht, p. 46.)&lt;br /&gt;It claimed that this is a principle of international law and a general principle&lt;br /&gt;of law.&lt;br /&gt;76. It is not necessary for the Court to determine whether there is a&lt;br /&gt;principle of international law or a general principle of law of "approximate&lt;br /&gt;application" because, even if such a principle existed, it could by&lt;br /&gt;definition only be employed within the limits of the treaty in question. In&lt;br /&gt;the view of the Court, Variant C does not meet that cardinal condition&lt;br /&gt;with regard to the 1977 Treaty.&lt;br /&gt;77. As the Court has already observed, the basic characteristic of the&lt;br /&gt;1977 Treaty is, according to Article 1, to provide for the construction of&lt;br /&gt;the Gabcikovo-Nagymaros System of Locks as a joint investment constituting&lt;br /&gt;a single and indivisible operational system of works. This&lt;br /&gt;element is equally reflected in Articles 8 and 10 of the Treaty providing&lt;br /&gt;for joint ownership of the most important works of the GabEikovo-&lt;br /&gt;Nagymaros Project and for the operation of this joint property as a&lt;br /&gt;CO-ordinated single unit. By definition al1 this could not be carried out by unilateral action. In spite of having a certain external physical&lt;br /&gt;similarity with the original Project, Variant C thus differed sharply from&lt;br /&gt;it in its legal characteristics.&lt;br /&gt;78. Moreover, in practice, the operation of Variant C led Czechoslovakia&lt;br /&gt;to appropriate, essentially for its use and benefit, between 80 and&lt;br /&gt;90 per cent of the waters of the Danube before returning them to the&lt;br /&gt;main bed of the river, despite the fact that the Danube is not only a&lt;br /&gt;shared international watercourse but also an international boundary&lt;br /&gt;river.&lt;br /&gt;Czechoslovakia submitted that Variant C was essentially no more than&lt;br /&gt;what Hungary had already agreed to and that the only modifications&lt;br /&gt;made were those which had become necessary by virtue of Hungary's&lt;br /&gt;decision not to implement its treaty obligations. It is true that Hungary,&lt;br /&gt;in concluding the 1977 Treaty, had agreed to the damming of the Danube&lt;br /&gt;and the diversion of its waters into the bypass canal. But it was only in&lt;br /&gt;the context of a joint operation and a sharing of its benefits that Hungary&lt;br /&gt;had given its consent. The suspension and withdrawal of that consent&lt;br /&gt;constituted a violation of Hungary's legal obligations, demonstrating, as&lt;br /&gt;it did, the refusal by Hungary of joint operation; but that cannot mean&lt;br /&gt;that Hungary forfeited its basic right to an equitable and reasonable&lt;br /&gt;sharing of the resources of an international watercourse.&lt;br /&gt;The Court accordingly concludes that Czechoslovakia, in putting&lt;br /&gt;Variant C into operation, was not applying the 1977 Treaty but, on the&lt;br /&gt;contrary, violated certain of its express provisions, and, in so doing,&lt;br /&gt;committed an internationally wrongful act.&lt;br /&gt;79. The Court notes that between November 1991 and October 1992,&lt;br /&gt;Czechoslovakia confined itself to the execution, on its own territory, of&lt;br /&gt;the works which were necessary for the implementation of Variant C, but&lt;br /&gt;which could have been abandoned if an agreement had been reached&lt;br /&gt;between the parties and did not therefore predetermine the final decision&lt;br /&gt;to be taken. For as long as the Danube had not been unilaterally&lt;br /&gt;dammed, Variant C had not in fact been applied.&lt;br /&gt;Such a situation is not unusual in international law or, for that matter,&lt;br /&gt;in domestic law. A wrongful act or offence is frequently preceded by preparatory&lt;br /&gt;actions which are not to be confused with the act or offence&lt;br /&gt;itself. It is as well to distinguish between the actual commission of a&lt;br /&gt;wrongful act (whether instantaneous or continuous) and the conduct&lt;br /&gt;prior to that act which is of a preparatory character and which "does&lt;br /&gt;not qualify as a wrongful act" (see for example the Commentary on&lt;br /&gt;Article 41 of the Draft Articles on State Responsibility, "Report of the&lt;br /&gt;International Law Commission on the work of its forty-eighth session,&lt;br /&gt;6 May-26 July 1996", Officiul Records of the General Assemblj&gt;, Fiftyfirst&lt;br /&gt;Session, Supplemcnt No. 10 (AlSlilO), p. 141, and Yearbook of the&lt;br /&gt;International Law Commission, 1993, Vol. II, Part 2, p. 57, para. 14).&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;80. Slovakia also maintained that it was acting under a duty to mitigate&lt;br /&gt;damages when it carried out Variant C. It stated that "It is a general&lt;br /&gt;principle of international law that a party injured by the non-performance&lt;br /&gt;of another contract party must seek to mitigate the damage he has&lt;br /&gt;sustained."&lt;br /&gt;It would follow from such a principle that an injured State which has&lt;br /&gt;failed to take the necessary measures to limit the damage sustained would&lt;br /&gt;not be entitled to claim compensation for that damage which could have&lt;br /&gt;been avoided. While this principle might thus provide a basis for the calculation&lt;br /&gt;of damages, it could not, on the other hand, justify an otherwise&lt;br /&gt;wrongful act.&lt;br /&gt;81. Since the Court has found that the putting into operation of Variant&lt;br /&gt;C constituted an internationally wrongful act, the duty to mitigate&lt;br /&gt;damage invoked by Slovakia does not need to be examined further.&lt;br /&gt;82. Although it did not invoke the plea of countermeasures as a&lt;br /&gt;primary argument, since it did not consider Variant C to be unlawful,&lt;br /&gt;Slovakia stated that "Variant C could be presented as a justified&lt;br /&gt;countermeasure to Hungary's illegal acts".&lt;br /&gt;The Court has concluded, in paragraph 78 above, that Czechoslovakia&lt;br /&gt;committed an internationally wrongful act in putting Variant C into&lt;br /&gt;operation. Thus, it now has to determine whether such wrongfulness may&lt;br /&gt;be precluded on the ground that the measure so adopted was in response&lt;br /&gt;to Hungary's prior failure to comply with its obligations under international&lt;br /&gt;law.&lt;br /&gt;83. In order to be justifiable, a countermeasure must meet certain conditions&lt;br /&gt;(see Militurq und Paramilitary Acti~,itie.s in und uguinst Nicaragua&lt;br /&gt;j Nicaraguu v. United Stute~o f Anwrica) , Merits, Judgment, 1. C.J .&lt;br /&gt;Reports 1986. p. 127, para. 249. See also Arbitral Abvard oj 9 Dccrmher&lt;br /&gt;19711 in the case concerning the Air Service Agreement oj 27 Murch 1946&lt;br /&gt;betwern the Unitrd States oj America and France, United Nations,&lt;br /&gt;Reports of lnternutionul Arbitral A)t,ards ( R I A A ) , Vol. XVIII, pp. 443 et&lt;br /&gt;seq.; also Articles 47 to 50 of the Draft Articles on State Responsibility&lt;br /&gt;adopted by the International Law Commission on first reading, "Report&lt;br /&gt;of the International Law Commission on the work of its forty-eighth session,&lt;br /&gt;6 May-26 July 1996", Ofjciul Records of the General Assembly,&lt;br /&gt;Fifty-Jirst Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/51110), pp. 144-145.)&lt;br /&gt;In the first place it must be taken in response to a previous international&lt;br /&gt;wrongful act of another State and must be directed against that&lt;br /&gt;State. Although not primarily presented as a countermeasure, it is clear&lt;br /&gt;that Variant C was a response to Hungary's suspension and abandonment of works and that it was directed against that State; and it is&lt;br /&gt;equally clear, in the Court's view, that Hungary's actions were internationally&lt;br /&gt;wrongful.&lt;br /&gt;84. Secondly, the injured State must have called upon the State committing&lt;br /&gt;the wrongful act to discontinue its wrongful conduct or to make&lt;br /&gt;reparation for it. It is clear from the facts of the case, as recalled above by&lt;br /&gt;the Court (see paragraphs 61 et seq.), that Czechoslovakia requested&lt;br /&gt;Hungary to resume the performance of its treaty obligations on many&lt;br /&gt;occasions.&lt;br /&gt;85. In the view of the Court, an important consideration is that the&lt;br /&gt;effects of a countermeasure must be commensurate with the injury suffered,&lt;br /&gt;taking account of the rights in question.&lt;br /&gt;In 1929, the Permanent Court of International Justice, with regard to&lt;br /&gt;navigation on the River Oder, stated as follows:&lt;br /&gt;"[the] community of interest in a navigable river becomes the basis&lt;br /&gt;of a common legal right, the essential features of which are the perfect&lt;br /&gt;equality of al1 riparian States in the user of the whole course of&lt;br /&gt;the river and the exclusion of any preferential privilege of any one&lt;br /&gt;riparian State in relation to the others" (Territorial Jurisdiction of&lt;br /&gt;the International Commission of the River Oder, Judgment No. 16,&lt;br /&gt;1929, P. C. I. J., Series A, No. 23, p. 27).&lt;br /&gt;Modern development of international law has strengthened this principle&lt;br /&gt;for non-navigational uses of international watercourses as well, as&lt;br /&gt;evidenced by the adoption of the Convention of 21 May 1997 on the Law&lt;br /&gt;of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses by the&lt;br /&gt;United Nations General Assembly.&lt;br /&gt;The Court considers that Czechoslovakia, by unilaterally assuming&lt;br /&gt;control of a shared resource, and thereby depriving Hungary of its right&lt;br /&gt;to an equitable and reasonable share of the natural resources of the Danube&lt;br /&gt;- with the continuing effects of the diversion of these waters on the&lt;br /&gt;ecology of the riparian area of the Szigetkoz - failed to respect the proportionality&lt;br /&gt;which is required by international law.&lt;br /&gt;86. Moreover, as the Court has already pointed out (see paragraph&lt;br /&gt;78), the fact that Hungary had agreed in the context of the original&lt;br /&gt;Project to the diversion of the Danube (and, in the Joint Contractual&lt;br /&gt;Plan, to a provisional measure of withdrawal of water from the Danube)&lt;br /&gt;cannot be understood as having authorized Czechoslovakia to proceed&lt;br /&gt;with a unilateral diversion of this magnitude without Hungary's consent.&lt;br /&gt;87. The Court thus considers that the diversion of the Danube carried&lt;br /&gt;out by Czechoslovakia was not a lawful countermeasure because it was&lt;br /&gt;not proportionate. It is therefore not required to pass upon one other&lt;br /&gt;condition for the lawfulness of a countermeasure, namely that its purpose&lt;br /&gt;must be to induce the wrongdoing State to comply with its obligations under international law, and that the measure must therefore be&lt;br /&gt;reversible.&lt;br /&gt;88. In the light of the conclusions reached above, the Court, in reply to&lt;br /&gt;the question put to it in Article 2, paragraph 1 (h), of the Special Agreement&lt;br /&gt;(see paragraph 60), finds that Czechoslovakia was entitled to proceed,&lt;br /&gt;in November 1991, to Variant C in so far as it then confined itself&lt;br /&gt;to undertaking works which did not predetermine the final decision to be&lt;br /&gt;taken by it. On the other hand, Czechoslovakia was not entitled to put&lt;br /&gt;that Variant into operation from October 1992.&lt;br /&gt;89. By the terms of Article 2, paragraph 1 (c), of the Special Agreement,&lt;br /&gt;the Court is asked, thirdly, to determine "what are the legal effects&lt;br /&gt;of the notification, on 19 May 1992, of the termination of the Treaty by&lt;br /&gt;the Republic of Hungary".&lt;br /&gt;The Court notes that it has been asked to determine what are the legal&lt;br /&gt;effects of the notification rriven on 19 Mav 1992 of the termination of the G d&lt;br /&gt;Treaty. It will consequently confine itself to replying to this question.&lt;br /&gt;90. The Court will recall that, by early 1992, the respective parties to&lt;br /&gt;the 1977 Treaty had made clear their positions with regard to the recourse&lt;br /&gt;by Czechoslovakia to Variant C. Hungary in a Note Verbale of 14 February&lt;br /&gt;1992 had made clear its view that Variant C was a contravention of&lt;br /&gt;the 1977 Treaty (see paragraph 64 above); Czechoslovakia insisted on the&lt;br /&gt;implementation of Variant C as a condition for further negotiation. On&lt;br /&gt;26 February 1992, in a letter to his Czechoslovak counterpart, the Prime&lt;br /&gt;Minister of Hungary described the impending diversion of the Danube as&lt;br /&gt;"a serious breach of international law" and stated that, unless work was&lt;br /&gt;suspended while further enquiries took place, "the Hungarian Government&lt;br /&gt;[would] have no choice but to respond to this situation of necessity&lt;br /&gt;by terminating the 1977 inter-State Treaty". In a Note Verbale dated&lt;br /&gt;18 March 1992, Czechoslovakia reaffirmed that, while it was prepared to&lt;br /&gt;continue negotiations "on every level", it could not agree "to stop al1&lt;br /&gt;work on the provisional solution".&lt;br /&gt;On 24 March 1992, the Hungarian Parliament passed a resolution&lt;br /&gt;authorizing the Government to terminate the 1977 Treaty if Czechoslovakia&lt;br /&gt;did not stop the works by 30 April 1992. On 13 April 1992, the&lt;br /&gt;Vice-President of the Commission of the European Communities wrote&lt;br /&gt;to both parties confirming the willingness of the Commission to chair a&lt;br /&gt;committee of independent experts including representatives of the two&lt;br /&gt;countries, in order to assist the two ~overnmentsin identifying a mutually acceptable solution. Commission involvement would depend on each&lt;br /&gt;Government not taking "any steps . . . which would prejudice possible&lt;br /&gt;actions to be undertaken on the basis of the report's findings". The&lt;br /&gt;Czechoslovak Prime Minister stated in a letter to the Hungarian Prime&lt;br /&gt;Minister dated 23 April 1992, that his Government continued to be interested&lt;br /&gt;in the establishment of the proposed committee "without any preliminary&lt;br /&gt;conditions"; criticizing Hungary's approach, he refused to suspend&lt;br /&gt;work on the provisional solution, but added, "in my opinion, there&lt;br /&gt;is still time, until the damming of the Danube (Le., until October 31,&lt;br /&gt;1992), for resolving disputed questions on the basis of agreement of both&lt;br /&gt;States".&lt;br /&gt;On 7 May 1992, Hungary, in the very resolution in which it decided on&lt;br /&gt;the termination of the Treaty, made a proposal, this time to the Slovak&lt;br /&gt;Prime Minister, for a six-month suspension of work on Variant C. The&lt;br /&gt;Slovak Prime Minister replied that the Slovak Government remained&lt;br /&gt;ready to negotiate, but considered preconditions "inappropriate".&lt;br /&gt;91. On 19 May 1992, the Hungarian Government transmitted to the&lt;br /&gt;Czechoslovak Government a Declaration notifying it of the termination&lt;br /&gt;by Hungary of the 1977 Treaty as of 25 May 1992. In a letter of the same&lt;br /&gt;date from the Hungarian Prime Minister to the Czechoslovak Prime&lt;br /&gt;Minister, the immediate cause for termination was specified to be Czechoslovakia's&lt;br /&gt;refusal, expressed in its letter of 23 April 1992, to suspend the&lt;br /&gt;work on Variant C during mediation efforts of the Commission of the&lt;br /&gt;European Communities. In its Declaration, Hungary stated that it could&lt;br /&gt;not accept the deleterious effects for the environment and the conservation&lt;br /&gt;of nature of the implementation of Variant C which would be practically&lt;br /&gt;equivalent to the dangers caused by the realization of the original&lt;br /&gt;Project. It added that Variant C infringed numerous international agreements&lt;br /&gt;and violated the territorial integrity of the Hungarian State by&lt;br /&gt;diverting the natural course of the Danube.&lt;br /&gt;92. During the proceedings, Hungary presented five arguments in support&lt;br /&gt;of the lawfulness, and thus the effectiveness, of its notification of&lt;br /&gt;termination. These were the existence of a state of necessity; the impossibility&lt;br /&gt;of performance of the Treaty; the occurrence of a fundamental&lt;br /&gt;change of circumstances; the material breach of the Treaty by Czechoslovakia;&lt;br /&gt;and, finally, the development of new norms of international&lt;br /&gt;environmental law. Slovakia contested each of these grounds.&lt;br /&gt;93. On the first point, Hungary stated that, as Czechoslovakia had&lt;br /&gt;"remained inflexible" and continued with its im~lementationo f Variant&lt;br /&gt;C, "a temporary state of necessity eventually became permanent, justifying&lt;br /&gt;termination of the 1977 Treaty".&lt;br /&gt;Slovakia, for its part, denied that a state of necessity existed on the basis of what it saw as the scientific facts; and argued that even if such a&lt;br /&gt;state of necessity had existed, this would not give rise to a right to terminate&lt;br /&gt;the Treaty under the Vienna Convention of 1969 on the Law of&lt;br /&gt;Treaties.&lt;br /&gt;94. Hungary's second argument relied on the terms of Article 61 of the&lt;br /&gt;Vienna Convention, which is worded as follows:&lt;br /&gt;"Article 61&lt;br /&gt;Supervening Impossibility of' Pe~forrnunce&lt;br /&gt;1. A party may invoke the impossibility of performing a treaty as&lt;br /&gt;a ground for terminating or withdrawing from it if the impossibility&lt;br /&gt;results from the permanent disappearance or destruction of an object&lt;br /&gt;indispensable for the execution of the treaty. If the impossibility is&lt;br /&gt;temporary, it may be invoked only as a ground for suspending the&lt;br /&gt;operation of the treaty.&lt;br /&gt;2. Impossibility of performance may not be invoked by a party as&lt;br /&gt;a ground for terminating, withdrawing from or suspending the operation&lt;br /&gt;of a treaty if the impossibility is the result of a breach by that&lt;br /&gt;party either of an obligation under the treaty or of any other international&lt;br /&gt;obligation owed to any other party to the treaty."&lt;br /&gt;Hungary declared that it could not be "obliged to fulfil a practically&lt;br /&gt;impossible task, namely to construct a barrage system on its own territory&lt;br /&gt;that would cause irreparable environmental damage". It concluded&lt;br /&gt;that&lt;br /&gt;"By May 1992 the essential object of the Treaty - an economic&lt;br /&gt;joint investment which was consistent with environmental protection&lt;br /&gt;and which was operated by the two parties jointly - had permanently&lt;br /&gt;disappeared, and the Treaty had thus become impossible to&lt;br /&gt;perform."&lt;br /&gt;In Hungary's view, the "object indispensable for the execution of the&lt;br /&gt;treaty", whose disappearance or destruction was required by Article 61 of&lt;br /&gt;the Vienna Convention, did not have to be a physical object, but could&lt;br /&gt;also include, in the words of the International Law Commission, "a legal&lt;br /&gt;situation which was the raison d'être of the rights and obligations".&lt;br /&gt;Slovakia claimed that Article 61 was the only basis for invoking impossibility&lt;br /&gt;of performance as a ground for termination, that paragraph 1 of&lt;br /&gt;that Article clearly contemplated physical "disappearance or destruction"&lt;br /&gt;of the object in question, and that, in any event, paragraph 2 precluded&lt;br /&gt;the invocation of impossibility "if the impossibility is the result of a&lt;br /&gt;breach by that party . . . of an obligation under the treaty".&lt;br /&gt;95. As to "fundamental change of circumstances", Hungary relied on&lt;br /&gt;Article 62 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties which states&lt;br /&gt;as follows:1. A fundamental change of circumstances which has occurred&lt;br /&gt;with regard to those existing at the time of the conclusion of a treaty,&lt;br /&gt;and which was not foreseen by the parties, may not be invoked as a&lt;br /&gt;ground for terminating or withdrawing from the treaty unless:&lt;br /&gt;(a) the existence of those circumstances constituted an essential&lt;br /&gt;basis of the consent of the parties to be bound by the treaty;&lt;br /&gt;and&lt;br /&gt;(h) the effect of the change is radically to transform the extent of&lt;br /&gt;obligations still to be performed under the treaty.&lt;br /&gt;2. A fundamental change of circumstances may not be invoked as&lt;br /&gt;a ground for terminating or withdrawing from a treaty:&lt;br /&gt;( a ) if the treaty establishes a boundary; or&lt;br /&gt;(h) if the fundamental change is the result of a breach by the party&lt;br /&gt;invoking it either of an obligation under the treaty or of any&lt;br /&gt;other international obligation owed to any other party to the&lt;br /&gt;treaty.&lt;br /&gt;3. If, under the foregoing paragraphs, a party may invoke a fundamental&lt;br /&gt;change of circumstances as a ground for terminating or&lt;br /&gt;withdrawing from a treaty it may also invoke the change as a ground&lt;br /&gt;for suspending the operation of the treaty."&lt;br /&gt;Hungary identified a number of "substantive elements" present at the&lt;br /&gt;conclusion of the 1977 Treaty which it said had changed fundamentally&lt;br /&gt;by the date of notification of termination. These included the notion&lt;br /&gt;of "socialist integration", for which the Treaty had originally been a&lt;br /&gt;"vehicle", but which subsequently disappeared; the "single and indivisible&lt;br /&gt;operational system", which was to be replaced by a unilateral scheme;&lt;br /&gt;the fact that the basis of the planned joint investment had been overturned&lt;br /&gt;by the sudden emergence of both States into a market economy;&lt;br /&gt;the attitude of Czechoslovakia which had turned the "framework treaty"&lt;br /&gt;into an "immutable norm"; and, finally, the transformation of a treaty&lt;br /&gt;consistent with environmental protection into "a prescription for environmental&lt;br /&gt;disaster".&lt;br /&gt;Slovakia, for its part, contended that the changes identified by Hungary&lt;br /&gt;had not altered the nature of the obligations under the Treaty from&lt;br /&gt;those originally undertaken, so that no entitlement to terminate it arose&lt;br /&gt;from them.&lt;br /&gt;96. Hungary further argued that termination of the Treaty was justified&lt;br /&gt;by Czechoslovakia's material breaches of the Treaty, and in this&lt;br /&gt;regard it invoked Article 60 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of&lt;br /&gt;Treaties, which provides:"Article 60&lt;br /&gt;Terminution or Suspension of the Operution o f u Treaty&lt;br /&gt;us u Consequence of Its Breach&lt;br /&gt;1. A material breach of a bilateral treaty by one of the parties&lt;br /&gt;entitles the other to invoke the breach as a ground for terminating&lt;br /&gt;the treaty or suspending its operation in whole or in part.&lt;br /&gt;2. A material breach of a multilateral treaty by one of the parties&lt;br /&gt;entitles :&lt;br /&gt;( a ) the other parties by unanimous agreement to suspend the operation&lt;br /&gt;of the treaty in whole or in part or to terminate it either:&lt;br /&gt;(i) in the relations between themselves and the defaulting State,&lt;br /&gt;or&lt;br /&gt;(ii) as between al1 the parties;&lt;br /&gt;( b ) a party specially affected by the breach to invoke it as a ground&lt;br /&gt;for suspending the operation of the treaty in whole or in part in&lt;br /&gt;the relations between itself and the defaulting State;&lt;br /&gt;(c) any party other than the defaulting State to invoke the breach&lt;br /&gt;as a ground for suspending the operation of the treaty in whole&lt;br /&gt;or in part with respect to itself if the treaty is of such a character&lt;br /&gt;that a material breach of its provisions by one party radically&lt;br /&gt;changes the position of every party with respect to the&lt;br /&gt;further performance of its obligations under the treaty.&lt;br /&gt;3. A niaterial breach of a treaty, for the purposes of this article,&lt;br /&gt;consists in:&lt;br /&gt;( a ) a repudiation of the treaty not sanctioned by the present Convention;&lt;br /&gt;or&lt;br /&gt;(6) the violation of a provision essential to the accomplishment of&lt;br /&gt;the object or purpose of the treaty.&lt;br /&gt;4. The foregoing paragraphs are without prejudice to any provision&lt;br /&gt;in the treaty applicable in the event of a breach.&lt;br /&gt;5. Paragraphs 1 to 3 do not apply to provisions relating to the&lt;br /&gt;protection of the human person contained in treaties of a humanitarian&lt;br /&gt;character, in particular to provisions prohibiting any form of&lt;br /&gt;reprisals against perçons protected by such treaties."&lt;br /&gt;Hungary claimed in particular that Czechoslovakia violated the 1977&lt;br /&gt;Treaty by proceeding to the construction and putting into operation of&lt;br /&gt;Variant C, as well as failing to comply with its obligations under Articles&lt;br /&gt;15 and 19 of the Treaty. Hungary further maintained that Czechoslovakia&lt;br /&gt;had breached other international conventions (among them the&lt;br /&gt;Convention of 31 May 1976 on the Regulation of Water Management&lt;br /&gt;Issues of Boundary Waters) and general international law.Slovakia denied that there had been, on the part of Czechoslovakia or&lt;br /&gt;on its part, any material breach of the obligations to protect water quality&lt;br /&gt;and nature, and claimed that Variant C, far from being a breach, was&lt;br /&gt;devised as "the best possible approximate application" of the Treaty. It&lt;br /&gt;furthermore denied that Czechoslovakia had acted in breach of other&lt;br /&gt;international conventions or general international law.&lt;br /&gt;97. Finally, Hungary argued that subsequently imposed requirements&lt;br /&gt;of international law in relation to the protection of the environment precluded&lt;br /&gt;performance of the Treaty. The previously existing obligation not&lt;br /&gt;to cause substantive damage to the territory of another State had, Hungary&lt;br /&gt;claimed, evolved into an ergu omnes obligation of prevention of&lt;br /&gt;damage pursuant to the "precautionary principle". On this basis, Hungary&lt;br /&gt;argued, its termination was "forced by the other party's refusal to&lt;br /&gt;suspend work on Variant Cm.&lt;br /&gt;Slovakia argued, in reply, that none of the intervening developments in&lt;br /&gt;environmental law gave rise to norms of jus cogens that would override&lt;br /&gt;the Treaty. Further, it contended that the claim by Hungary to be&lt;br /&gt;entitled to take action could not in any event serve as legal justification&lt;br /&gt;for termination of the Treaty under the law of treaties, but belonged&lt;br /&gt;rather "to the language of self-help or reprisals".&lt;br /&gt;98. The question, as formulated in Article 2, paragraph 1 ( c ) , of the&lt;br /&gt;Special Agreement, deals with treaty law since the Court is asked to&lt;br /&gt;determine what the legal effects are of the notification of termination of&lt;br /&gt;the Treaty. The question is whether Hungary's notification of 19 May&lt;br /&gt;1992 brought the 1977 Treaty to an end, or whether it did not meet the&lt;br /&gt;requirements of international law, with the consequence that it did not&lt;br /&gt;terminate the Treaty.&lt;br /&gt;99. The Court has referred earlier to the question of the applicability&lt;br /&gt;to the present case of the Vienna Convention of 1969 on the Law of Treaties.&lt;br /&gt;The Vienna Convention is not directly applicable to the 1977 Treaty&lt;br /&gt;inasmuch as both States ratified that Convention only after the Treaty's&lt;br /&gt;conclusion. Consequently only those rules which are declaratory of customary&lt;br /&gt;law are applicable to the 1977 Treaty. As the Court has already&lt;br /&gt;stated above (see paragraph 46), this is the case, in many respects, with&lt;br /&gt;Articles 60 to 62 of the Vienna Convention. relatin"e to termination or&lt;br /&gt;suspension of the operation of a treaty. On this, the Parties, too, were&lt;br /&gt;broadly in agreement.&lt;br /&gt;100. The 1977 Treaty does not contain any provision regarding its termination.&lt;br /&gt;Nor is there any indication that the parties intended to admit&lt;br /&gt;the possibility of denunciation or withdrawal. On the contrary, the&lt;br /&gt;Treaty establishes a long-standing and durable régime of joint investmentand joint operation. Consequently, the parties not having agreed otherwise,&lt;br /&gt;the Treaty could be terminated only on the limited grounds enumerated&lt;br /&gt;in the Vienna Convention.&lt;br /&gt;101. The Court will now turn to the first ground advanced by Hungary,&lt;br /&gt;that of the state of necessity. In this respect, the Court will merely&lt;br /&gt;observe that, even if a state of necessity is found to exist, it is not a&lt;br /&gt;ground for the termination of a treaty. It may only be invoked to exonerate&lt;br /&gt;from its responsibility a State which has failed to implement a&lt;br /&gt;treaty. Even if found justified, it does not terminate a Treaty; the Treaty&lt;br /&gt;may be ineffective as long as the condition of necessity continues to exist ;&lt;br /&gt;it may in fact be dormant, but - unless the parties by mutual agreement&lt;br /&gt;terminate the Treaty - it continues to exist. As soon as the state of&lt;br /&gt;necessity ceases to exist, the duty to comply with treaty obligations&lt;br /&gt;revives.&lt;br /&gt;102. Hungary also relied on the principle of the impossibility of performance&lt;br /&gt;as reflected in Article 61 of the Vienna Convention on the Law&lt;br /&gt;of Treaties. Hungary's interpretation of the wording of Article 61 is,&lt;br /&gt;however, not in conformity with the terms of that Article, nor with the&lt;br /&gt;intentions of the Diplomatic Conference which adopted the Convention.&lt;br /&gt;Article 6 1, paragraph 1, requires the "permanent disappearance or&lt;br /&gt;destruction of an object indispensable for the execution" of the treaty to&lt;br /&gt;justify the termination of a treaty on grounds of impossibility of performance.&lt;br /&gt;During the conference, a proposal was made to extend the scope of&lt;br /&gt;the article by including in it cases such as the impossibility to make certain&lt;br /&gt;payments because of serious financial difficulties (Ojjciul Records of&lt;br /&gt;the United Nations Conjerence on the Luiv qf' Treuties, First Session,&lt;br /&gt;Vienna, 26 Murch-24 Muy 1968, doc. A/CONF.39/11, Summary records&lt;br /&gt;of the plenary meetings and of the meetings of the Committee of the&lt;br /&gt;Whole, 62nd Meeting of the Committee of the Whole, pp. 361-365).&lt;br /&gt;Although it was recognized that such situations could lead to a preclusion&lt;br /&gt;of the wrongfulness of non-performance by a party of its treaty&lt;br /&gt;obligations, the participating States were not prepared to consider such&lt;br /&gt;situations to be a ground for terminating or suspending a treaty,&lt;br /&gt;and preferred to limit themselves to a narrower concept.&lt;br /&gt;103. Hungary contended that the essential object of the Treaty - an&lt;br /&gt;economic joint investment which was consistent with environmental protection&lt;br /&gt;and which was operated by the two contracting parties jointly -&lt;br /&gt;had permanently disappeared and that the Treaty had thus become&lt;br /&gt;impossible to perform. It is not necessary for the Court to determine&lt;br /&gt;whether the term "object" in Article 61 can also be understood to&lt;br /&gt;embrace a legal régime as in any event, even if that were the case, it would have to conclude that in this instance that régime had not definitively&lt;br /&gt;ceased to exist. The 1977 Treaty - and in particular its Articles 15,&lt;br /&gt;19 and 20 - actually made available to the parties the necessary means&lt;br /&gt;to proceed at any time, by negotiation, to the required readjustments&lt;br /&gt;between economic imperatives and ecological imperatives. The Court&lt;br /&gt;would add that, if the joint exploitation of the investment was no longer&lt;br /&gt;possible, this was originally because Hungary did not carry out most of&lt;br /&gt;the works for which it was responsible under the 1977 Treaty; Article 61,&lt;br /&gt;paragraph 2, of the Vienna Convention expressly provides that impossibility&lt;br /&gt;of performance may not be invoked for the termination of a treaty&lt;br /&gt;by a party to that treaty when it results from that party's own breach of&lt;br /&gt;an obligation flowing from that treaty.&lt;br /&gt;104. Hungary further argued that i
